Wide field raman imaging apparatus and associated methods

ABSTRACT

Apparatus and methods are presented herein that permit real-time, accurate detection of residual tumor in the operating room. The Raman-based wide-field imaging apparatus and methods described herein permit real-time imaging of tumor-targeted R-MR nanoparticles over a wide field.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No.61/767,241 filed Feb. 20, 2013, and of U.S. Provisional Application No.61/834,854, filed Jun. 13, 2013, the contents of both of which arehereby incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.

BACKGROUND

A variety of surgical techniques have been developed for the physicalremoval of cancerous or other diseased tissue. A goal of these methodsis to remove cancerous/diseased tissue with minimal damage to nearbyhealthy tissue. A surgeon resects tissue that appears to be abnormalfrom visual inspection.

Surgical resection is the standard of care for most cancer types.However, complete resection is hindered by the ability of a surgeon toaccurately identify tumor margins and small infiltrative tumor deposits.The degree of residual tumor post-surgery correlates with theprobability of tumor recurrence and development of metastatic disease.To be certain that all tumor is removed, surgeons often perform “wideexcisions” to achieve tumor-free margins. This may be problematic orimpossible due to adjacent vital structures or organs which would needto be sacrificed. For example, limb amputation or exenteration, i.e.,removal of adjacent organs, may be necessary. Alternatively, surgeonscan spare adjacent structures, but risks for recurrence may beincreased, due to tumor tissue remaining in the body.

Although advances in medical imaging systems, such as MRI, have beenmade to help a surgeon localize abnormal tissue prior to surgery, thesurgeon's ability to identify abnormal tissue at the margins ofinfiltratively growing cancers or in the setting of metastatis spreadvia visual inspection during surgery are limited. Tissue may be analyzedduring surgery to aid in determination of abnormal tissue boundaries,but biopsy and analysis of tissue by a pathologist during surgery istime-consuming, and may be limited to only one or two areas during asingle operation.

There remains a need for imaging apparatus and methods that accuratelydetect and visually identify residual tumor during a real-time surgicalprocedure. This would allow more precise removal of cancerous and/ordiseased tissue from locations within, surrounding, and/or adjacent tocritical organs or tissue, where significant harm may result from damageto or removal of healthy tissue. This would also reduce the amount ofhealthy tissue that is removed, and would reduce the risk of recurrence.

SUMMARY

In some aspects, apparatus and methods are presented herein that permitreal-time, accurate detection of residual tumor in the operating room.The Raman-based wide-field imaging apparatus and methods describedherein permit real-time imaging of tumor-targeted nanoparticles in anoperating bed—for example, across a 30×30 cm field of view. The widefield imaging apparatus is particularly useful for imaging Raman signalsemitted by nanoparticles such as R-MR nanoparticles, as described inNature Medicine, Vol. 18, pp. 829, 834, 2012, incorporated herein byreference in its entirety.

Existing Raman scanners are pen-like point scanners which do not acquireimages, or imaging microscopes built for use of in vitro samples orsmall animals. By contrast, described herein is a wide field Ramanscanner that is able to image an entire operative bed in near real-time.

In one aspect, the invention relates to a wide field Raman imagingapparatus comprising: at least one light source for producing excitationlight; optics for directing the excitation light onto and/or into atarget tissue; a detector for detecting Raman scattered photonsemanating from the target tissue following illumination by theexcitation light, the Raman scattered photons indicative of the presenceof a Raman reporter in and/or upon the target tissue; and a processorconfigured to process data corresponding to the Raman scattered photonsdetected from the target tissue and to produce an image depicting a widefield corresponding to the target tissue, the image visually indicatingposition and/or intensity of the Raman reporter within the wide field.

In some embodiments, the at least one light source, the detector, andthe processor are configured to produce a substantially real-time seriesof images visually indicating position and/or intensity of the Ramanreporter within the wide field. In some embodiments, the processor isconfigured to produce each image of the real-time series of images byobtaining one or more monochromatic images within a given short intervalof time (e.g., 500 milliseconds or less, e.g., 50 milliseconds or less),each monochromatic image obtained at a wavelength corresponding to aspectral peak characteristic of the Raman reporter, and to use the oneor more monochromatic images to produce the image in the real-timeseries indicating the position and/or intensity of the Raman reporterwithin the wide field during the given short interval of time.

In some embodiments, the wide field is at least 100 cm² in area (e.g.,at least 300, 500, 1000, or 1200 cm²). In some embodiments, the at leastone light source comprises a tunable laser source. In some embodiments,the optics comprise a tunable laser line filter (LLF) and/or a tunablenotch filter (NF) (e.g., said filter(s) comprising tandem thick volumeBragg gratings). In some embodiments, the detector is a hyperspectralimager with a spatial resolution no greater than about 10 mm² (e.g.,from 0.1 mm² to 3 mm², e.g., about 1 mm²). In some embodiments, thedetector comprises an optical pathway configured to allow x-y imaging ofthe Raman reporter within the wide field regardless of depth (z) of theRaman reporter in relation to the detector.

In some embodiments, the apparatus further includes a visual display forviewing the image. In some embodiments, the processor is configured toproduce a substantially real-time series of images and transmit theimages for display on a personal image display (e.g., worn by thesurgeon), such that the series of images can be displayed on, in, orthrough a transparent display that superimposes the displayed series ofimages over a corresponding view of the wide field. In some embodiments,the processor is configured to track the position of the personal imagedisplay and compensate the series of images for movement of the display(e.g., movement of the wearer of the display), accordingly (e.g., bytracking the location of markers affixed on or near the patient as theyappear within a field of view of the personal image display).

In some embodiments, the apparatus further comprises a visual display,wherein the visual display is an adjustable tablet-shaped screenpositionable in relation to the target tissue of a patient in anoperating bed, wherein the optics for directing the excitation lightonto and/or into the target tissue are positioned on the side of thetablet-shaped screen facing the operating bed, and the image isdisplayed on the side of the tablet-shaped screen facing away from theoperating bed so as to be viewable by a surgeon.

In some embodiments, the light source for producing excitation lightcomprises one or more lasers, and wherein the optics for directing theexcitation light onto and/or into the target tissue are configured todisperse the excitation light evenly over the wide field correspondingto the target tissue.

In some embodiments, the apparatus further includes a resection/ablationmechanism described herein, e.g., a resection/ablation mechanism that isactivated only at locations at which one or more Raman reporters aredetected.

In another aspect, the invention relates to a method for performing widefield Raman imaging of target tissue of a patient during a surgicalprocedure, the method comprising: administering a first Raman reporterto the patient (e.g., intravenously, topically, intraarterially,intratumorally, intranodally, via lymphatic vessels, etc.); illuminatingthe target tissue with excitation light; detecting Raman scatteredphotons emanating from the target tissue following illumination by theexcitation light, the Raman scattered photons indicative of the presenceof the first Raman reporter in and/or upon the target tissue; obtaining,by the processor of a computing device, an image depicting a wide fieldcorresponding to the target tissue, the image visually indicatingposition and/or intensity of the first Raman reporter within the widefield; and displaying the image.

In some embodiments, the first Raman reporter accumulates within and/orupon cancerous, diseased, and/or otherwise abnormal portions of thetarget tissue prior to the illuminating and detecting step. In someembodiments, the method comprises obtaining, by the processor of thecomputing device, a substantially real-time series of images visuallyindicating position and/or intensity of the first Raman reporter withinthe wide field and displaying the series of images in real-time. In someembodiments, the method comprises obtaining, for each image of thereal-time series of images, by the processor of the computing device,one or more monochromatic images within a given short interval of time(e.g., 500 milliseconds or less, e.g., 50 milliseconds or less), eachmonochromatic image obtained at a wavelength corresponding to a spectralpeak characteristic of the Raman reporter, and using the one or moremonochromatic images to produce the image in the real-time seriesindicating the position and/or intensity of the Raman reporter withinthe wide field during the given short interval of time. In someembodiments, the method comprises displaying the real-time series ofimages at a frame rate at least 10 frames per second (e.g., 20 to 25frames per second).

In some embodiments, the first Raman reporter comprises Raman-MRI (R-MR)nanoparticles. In some embodiments, the first Raman reporter comprisesSERRS nanoparticles.

In some embodiments, the method comprises administering a second Ramanreporter to the patient with different Raman signature than the firstRaman reporter, wherein the detected Raman scattered photons areindicative of the presence of the first Raman reporter and the secondRaman reporter in and/or upon the target tissue, and wherein the imagevisually indicates position and/or intensity of the first Raman reporterand the second Raman reporter within the wide field in a manner suchthat the first Raman reporter is distinguishable from the second Ramanreporter.

In some embodiments, the wide field is at least 100 cm² in area (e.g.,at least 300, 500, 1000, or 1200 cm²). In some embodiments, the methodcomprises displaying the image on a visual display, wherein the visualdisplay is an adjustable tablet-shaped screen positionable in relationto the target tissue of a patient in an operating bed, wherein the imageis displayed on the side of the tablet-shaped screen facing away fromthe operating bed such that it is viewable by a surgeon during asurgical procedure.

In some embodiments, the method comprises producing, by the processor ofthe computing device, a substantially real-time series of images anddisplaying the images on a personal image display (e.g., worn by asurgeon operating on the patient), such that the series of images aredisplayed on, in, or through a transparent display that superimposes thedisplayed series of images over a corresponding view of the wide field.In some embodiments, the method comprises tracking, by the processor ofthe computing device, the position of the personal image display, andcompensating the series of images for movement of the display (e.g.,movement of the wearer of the display), accordingly (e.g., by trackingthe location of markers affixed on or near the patient as they appearwithin the field of view of the personal image display). Detailsregarding an exemplary personal image display are described in U.S.Patent Application Publication No. US 2013/0044042, published Feb. 21,2013.

In some embodiments, the method further includes resecting, ablating,and/or destroying diseased tissue using a resection/ablation apparatus,system, and/or method described herein.

In some aspects, systems and methods are presented herein that provideautomated laser ablation and/or tissue resection triggered by detectionof one or more Raman reporters, such as Raman nanoparticles (e.g.,surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopic (SERS) and/or surface-enhanced(resonance) Raman spectroscopic (SERRS) nanoparticles), and/or intrinsicspecies that produce(s) a characteristic, identifiable Raman signal(e.g., Raman spectrum). These systems and methods provide for preciseremoval of cancerous or other diseased tissue with minimal damage toadjacent healthy tissue.

In some embodiments, a system is provided herein with aresection/ablation mechanism that is activated only at locations atwhich one or more Raman reporters are detected. For example, an ablationlaser or resection mechanism is activated at a location only when aRaman signal indicative of the presence of a Raman reporter at thelocation is recognized by a Raman spectrometer, where the Raman reporteris associated with tissue to be resected/ablated (e.g., cancerous,diseased, infected, or otherwise abnormal tissue). If the specific Ramansignal associated with one or more Raman reporters is not detected, theablation/resection mechanism is not activated. In this way, extremelyprecise destruction and/or removal of diseased tissue may beaccomplished while limiting damage to nearby healthy tissue. Forexample, a precision of 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, or 50 micrometers orbetter may be achieved.

In certain embodiments, a Raman reporter is a Raman nanoparticle (e.g.,SERS and/or SERRS nanoparticle), or a component of a Raman nanoparticle.In some embodiments, Raman nanoparticles are administered (e.g., byinjection or topically) to a patient/subject and are allowed toaccumulate in and/or around cancerous tissue, pre-cancerous tissue, orother diseased tissue (e.g., necrotic tissue, infected tissue, inflamedtissue, etc.). The Raman nanoparticles that may be used in the disclosedsystems and methods include, for example, those described in Kircher etal., Nature Medicine 2012 Apr. 15; 18(5): 829-34, the text of which isincorporated herein by reference in its entirety. These are based onsurface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS). Other nanoparticles may beused, as long as they create a sufficiently detectable anddistinguishable Raman signal (e.g., a Raman spectrum).

In some embodiments, a Raman reporter is a molecule or substance presentwithin, on, or near diseased tissue itself (“intrinsic species”), whichis identified or targeted using an intrinsic Raman spectrum (e.g., aRaman spectrum detected following illumination of tissue). In someembodiments, tissue is selected and/or resected/ablated if a detectedRaman signal satisfactorily matches a predetermined Raman signal knownto be indicative of the Raman reporter.

In certain embodiments, the system includes a hand-held instrument ofsize and shape that may be customized depending on the application. Forexample, the system may include a laser suitable to ablate/destroytissue (such as, for example, a CO₂ or Nd:YAG laser). Alternatively oradditionally, the system may include a motor-driven, controlledresection mechanism such as, for example, a small rotating blade,located at the tip of the hand-held instrument. Alternatively oradditionally, the system may include an electro-cautery mechanism, acryoablation mechanism, and/or a radiofrequency ablation mechanism. Insome embodiments, an ablation mechanism is a robotic/remote controlledablation mechanism (e.g., located at the tip of the hand-heldinstrument). The system may also include a vacuum suction mechanismconnected to a collection bag for removal of destroyed/ablated/resectedtissue as well as nanoparticles located within the target tissue. Thesystem may also include an excitation laser and associated optics fordetermination of Raman spectra associated with detected photonsemanating from the tissue. A rinsing mechanism may be included to keepoptics clean during the procedure. The hand-held instrument may beconnected to other components of the system via fiberoptic cable, forexample, and suction tubing. The hand-held instrument may be connectedto components of a box housing mechanics, optics, electronics,excitation laser, ablation laser, resection instrument motor,radiofrequency or cryoablation generator, suction motor, rinsingmechanism, Raman spectral analysis optics, and/or the CCD chip.

A surgeon using the disclosed system can destroy or remove cancerous (orotherwise abnormal) tissue quickly and with high precision in asemiautomated fashion. For example, the hand-held instrument may bepositioned and moved over regions of tissue “blindly” or “semi-blindly”near the site of disease/cancer, as the system destroys only canceroustissue, with no or minimal damage to adjacent healthy tissue. The systemmay be used, for example, during open surgical procedures, in-office(non-surgical) procedures, invasive procedures, non-invasive orminimally invasive procedures, endoscopic procedures,robotically-assisted procedures, or in external applications such asskin cancer removal.

An automated or semi-automated X-Y (two-dimensional) or X—Y-Z(three-dimensional) scan of the tissue by the instrument may beperformed. For example, the detection+ablation/resection instrument maybe positioned such that excitation light from the instrument is directedto a sequence of X-Y or X—Y-Z positions of the tissue. At each location,light is detected and the processor of the system determines whether aRaman reporter is detected at that location. If so, theresection/ablation mechanism is activated at that location such thatonly tissue at that location is removed or destroyed. Theresection/ablation mechanism is then deactivated prior to moving theinstrument to a second location, whereupon excitation light is directedto the second position and light is detected from the second positionand the resection/ablation mechanism is activated only if a Ramanreporter is detected at that second position, and so on.

For applications involving skin cancer removal, or other abnormaltopical tissue removal, a Raman reporter is a SERS nanoparticle (or acomponent thereof) that may be applied topically or injected prior tooperation of the hand-held instrument. A topical application may includepenetrating peptides to facilitate absorption of the SERS nanoparticlesinto the skin. In some embodiments, a Raman reporter is an intrinsicspecies within, on, or near the skin cancer or other abnormal tissue.

In one aspect, the invention encompasses a system comprising: anexcitation light source for directing excitation light onto or into atarget tissue; an instrument (e.g., hand-held instrument) operablylinked to the excitation light source, the instrument comprising: opticsfor directing the excitation light onto or into the target tissue; adetector for detecting Raman scattered photons emanating from the targettissue, said Raman scattered photons resulting from illumination withthe excitation light; a resector/ablator mechanism; a processor (e.g., aRaman spectrometer and associated computer processor and/or software)configured to process data corresponding to the Raman scattered photonsdetected from the target tissue; and a resector/ablator controlleroperably linked to the processor and operably linked to theresector/ablator mechanism.

In certain embodiments, the excitation light source is a laser. Incertain embodiments, the excitation light has a wavelength of about 500nm to about 10 μm. In some embodiments, the excitation light has awavelength of about 785 nm. In certain embodiments, the excitation lightis near-infrared light (e.g., where deeper penetration, e.g., up toabout 1 cm, is desired). In certain embodiments, the excitation isultraviolet light (e.g., where shallow penetration, e.g., only up to 1mm, up to 2 mm, or up to 3 mm, is desired). In certain embodiments, theinstrument is an endoscopic instrument.

In certain embodiments, the resector/ablator mechanism comprises alaser. In certain embodiments, the laser of the resector/ablatormechanism is a CO₂ laser. In certain embodiments, the resector/ablatormechanism is a mechanical resector (e.g., rotary blade, vibrating knife,or percussing knife). In some embodiments, the resector/ablatormechanism is an electro-cautery mechanism, a cryoablation mechanism,and/or a radiofrequency ablation mechanism. In certain embodiments, theresector/ablator controller is configured to activate theresector/ablator mechanism to resect, ablate, and/or destroy tissue at agiven location only if Raman scattered photons detected from the givenlocation (e.g., a detected Raman signal or spectrum) indicate thepresence of a Raman reporter (e.g., SERS nanoparticles, SERRSnanoparticles, or an intrinsic species). In certain embodiments, thesystem further comprises a suction vacuum operably linked to theinstrument.

In another aspect, the invention encompasses a method of resecting,ablating, and/or destroying diseased tissue, the method comprising thesteps of: positioning an instrument in relation to a first location(e.g., (x,y,z) or (x,y) location) of a target tissue of a subject (e.g.,human or animal), the instrument comprising: optics for directingexcitation light onto or into the target tissue at a given location; adetector for detecting Raman scattered photons emanating from the targettissue at the given location; and a resector/ablator mechanism;detecting the Raman scattered photons emanating from the first locationof the target tissue; analyzing the detected Raman scattered photonsemanating from the first location to determine whether the detectedphotons are indicative of the presence of a Raman reporter (e.g., SERSnanoparticles, SERRS nanoparticles, or intrinsic species) at the firstlocation; and activating the resector/ablator mechanism (e.g., via aresector/ablator controller) to resect the target tissue at the firstlocation only if the analyzed photons from the first location aredetermined to be indicative of the presence of a Raman reporter at thefirst location.

In certain embodiments, the method further comprises: deactivating theresector/ablator mechanism prior to repositioning of the instrument inrelation to a second location of the target tissue (e.g., wherein thesecond location of the target tissue is adjacent to the first location);detecting the Raman scattered photons emanating from the second locationof the target tissue; analyzing the detected Raman scattered photonsemanating from the second location to determine whether the detectedphotons are indicative of the presence of a Raman reporter (e.g., SERSnanoparticles, SERRS nanoparticles, and/or intrinsic species) at thesecond location; and activating the resector/ablator mechanism toresect, ablate, and/or destroy the target tissue at the second locationonly if the analyzed photons from the second location are determined tobe indicative of the presence of the Raman reporter at the secondlocation.

In certain embodiments, the method further comprises administeringnanoparticles (e.g., SERS nanoparticles or SERRS nanoparticles) to thesubject prior to implementation of the instrument (e.g., allowingaccumulation of the nanoparticles in regions associated with disease).In certain embodiments, the method further comprises scanning thesubject prior to implementation of the instrument to confirm the absenceof nanoparticles from healthy (e.g., normal, e.g., non-cancerous)tissue.

In certain embodiments, the instrument is operably linked to anexcitation light source. In certain embodiments, the excitation lightsource is a laser. In certain embodiments, the excitation light has awavelength of about of about 500 nm to about 10 μm. In some embodiments,the excitation light has a wavelength of about 785 nm. In certainembodiments, the excitation light is near-infrared light (e.g., wheredeeper penetration, e.g., up to about 1 cm, is desired). In certainembodiments, the excitation is ultraviolet light (e.g., where shallowpenetration, e.g., only up to 1 mm, up to 2 mm, or up to 3 mm, isdesired). In certain embodiments, the instrument is an endoscopicdevice. In certain embodiments, the resector/ablator mechanism comprisesa laser. In certain embodiments, the laser of the resector/ablatormechanism is a CO₂ laser. In certain embodiments, the resector/ablatormechanism is a mechanical resector (e.g., rotary blade, vibrating knife,or percussing knife). In some embodiments, the resector/ablatormechanism is an electro-cautery mechanism, a cryoablation mechanism,and/or a radiofrequency ablation mechanism.

In certain embodiments, the analyzing step comprises using a computerprocessor (e.g., a Raman spectrometer and associated computer processorand/or software) to process data corresponding to the detected Ramanscattered photons. In certain embodiments, the method further comprisesremoving resected tissue. In certain embodiments, the method is an invivo method.

In any of the aspects described herein, the instrument can be a handheldinstrument, a stationary instrument, and/or a robotically assistedinstrument. In some embodiments, the device is an endoscopic instrument.

In any of the aspects described herein, the system may further includeother optics, hardware, electronics, and/or software for imaging targetcells or tissues.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The following figures are presented for the purpose of illustrationonly, and are not intended to be limiting.

FIG. 1 a shows a Raman-MRI (R-MR) nanoparticle used in conjunction withthe wide-field Raman scanner/imaging apparatus described herein,according to an illustrative embodiment.

FIG. 1 b is a computer rendering and electron microscopy images of theR-MR nanoparticle.

FIG. 1 c is an exemplary Raman spectrum and intensity comparison of theR-MR nanoparticles versus equimolar amounts of first generationnanoparticles.

FIG. 1 d shows R-MR nanoparticles suspended in a 384 well plate phantomimaged with a Renishaw InVia Raman microscope.

FIG. 2 shows a comparison of Raman signal intensity of R-MRnanoparticles and previous, first generation nanoparticles.

FIG. 3 shows a comparison of detection sensitivity between the Ramansignal of the R-MR nanoparticles and other imaging modalities. R-MRnanoparticles have a detection threshold of 1.8×10-15 femtomolar [fM],and are therefore at least 3 orders of magnitude more sensitive thanother ultra-sensitive imaging methods such as Positron-EmissionTomography (PET) or fluorescence imaging.

FIG. 4. shows the Renishaw InVia Raman microscope utilized to provideproof-of-concept data presented in other Figures.

FIG. 5 shows how R-MR nanoparticles can be used to detect microscopicinfiltration at tumor margins in a mouse with dedifferentiatedlipiosarcoma implanted in the flank, according to an illustrativeembodiment.

FIG. 6 shows how R-MR nanoparticles can be used to detect microscopicinfiltration at tumor margins in the same mouse as FIG. 5, afterresection of the bulk tumor by a board-certified surgeon using hisunaided eye (blinded to Raman image), according to an illustrativeembodiment. There is a residual rim of Raman signal in the resection bedaround the resected tumor. Histological evaluation confirmed tumor inthe locations of the Raman signal.

FIG. 7 shows how R-MR nanoparticles can be used to detect microscopicregional satellite metastases in a mouse with liposarcoma, according toan illustrative embodiment.

FIG. 8 shows how R-MR nanoparticles can be used to detectsubmillimeter-sized dysplastic (premalignant) polyps andadenocarcinomas, according to an illustrative embodiment. The experimentwas performed in an APCmin mouse, which is a mouse model mimicking thehuman “adenomatosis polyposis coli” syndrome, a genetic disorder thatcauses many dysplastic polyps and adenocarcinomas to developsimultaneously. Note that Raman imaging reveals many small foci (lessthan 1 mm in size) of R-MR nanoparticle uptake within the colon andsmall bowel of an APCmin mouse (excised 24 hours after nanoparticleinjection). These foci were then processed with histology, whichdemonstrated that they represented dysplastic polyps or adenocarcinomas.

FIG. 9 shows how R-MR nanoparticles can be used to detectsubmillimeter-sized dysplastic (premalignant) polyps andadenocarcinomas, according to an illustrative embodiment—histologicalconfirmation. Shown is a segment of colon from the mouse in FIG. X. Twohistological cross-sections through the Raman positive areas wereobtained and stained with Hematoxylin-Eosin (H&E). Section 1 proved thelesion to represent an adenocarcinoma, section 2 a dysplastic polyp.This demonstrates that the R-MR nanoparticles are able to detect notonly very small colon cancers, but also their premalignantform—dysplastic polyps—which will eventually develop into invasiveadenocarcinomas. The R-MRs may therefore be used as a new method forearly colon cancer detection.

FIG. 10 shows how R-MR nanoparticles can be used to detect prostatecancer, according to an illustrative embodiment. Experiment wasperformed in a state-of-the-art genetic spontaneous (Hi-Myc) mouse modelof prostate cancer. Mice express human c-Myc in the mouse prostate.Upper row: Images show a control animal (same mouse strain but withoutthe Myc mutation) that was injected with R-MR-Nanoparticles: No Ramansignal is seen in this normal prostate. Lower row: Images from aprostate cancer bearing mouse (hi-Myc) with obvious deformity of theprostate due to tumor (photograph) that was injected with the sameamount of R-MR-Nanoparticles. The Raman image shows accumulation ofR-MR-Nanoparticle within the tumor areas.

FIG. 11 shows how R-MR nanoparticles can be used to detect microscopicresidual tumor in resection bed in a transgenic mouse model of prostatecancer (Hi-Myc), according to an illustrative embodiment. Aprostatectomy was performed in a tumor-bearing Hi-Myc mouse, andsubsequently the resection bed scanned with Raman imaging.Immunohistochemical correlation shows that small foci of Raman signalcorrespond to residual microscopic prostate cancer that could not havebeen visualized otherwise and would have been “missed”. Note theexcellent correlation between the histological tumor markers and thepresence of the nanoparticles (“Raman nanoparticle staining”=antibodyagainst PEGylated silica nanoparticle surface).

FIG. 12 shows how R-MR nanoparticles can be used to detect breast cancerin a state-of-the-art genetic MMTV-PyMT breast cancer mouse model,according to an illustrative embodiment. Mice with this genetic mutationspontaneously develop multiple breast cancers in different mammaryglands and closely mimic human breast cancer pathology. Note that theRaman signal from the R-MR-Nanoparticles accurately depicts the extentof multiple 3-6 mm sized breast cancers in the same mice, includingsmall submillimeter tumor extensions. Upper row: Breast cancersdeveloped along the upper and middle mammary glands of a MMTV-PyMTmouse. Lower row: Breast cancers developed within the lower mammaryglands of a MMTV-PyMT mouse.

FIG. 13 shows how R-MR nanoparticles can be used to detect microscopictumor infiltration into the skin, according to an illustrativeembodiment. This experiment was performed in an orthotopic 4T1 breastcancer mouse model. The 4T1 breast cancer cell line was transfected toexpress mCherry fluorescence. The photograph on the left shows the bulktumor after the overlying skin was lifted off. Within the skin overlyingthe tumor, a subtle area of thickening was observed, with a central areaof discoloration (arrows in dashed white box). We then performed R-MRimaging of this area (middle image), which shows Raman signal (red)outlining the area. The Raman signal matches closely the mCherryfluorescence (right image) emitted from the skin, proving the presenceof breast cancer cells in this location.

FIG. 14 shows how R-MR nanoparticles can be used to detect pancreaticcancer, according to an illustrative embodiment.

FIG. 15 shows an ex vivo high (1 micrometer) resolution Raman imaging ofthe excised pancreas from FIG. 14.

FIG. 16 shows how R-MR nanoparticles can be used to detect brain cancersin a genetic, spontaneous RCAS/tv-a glioblastoma model, according to anillustrative embodiment.

FIG. 17 shows how R-MR nanoparticles allow detection of single braintumor cells, according to an illustrative embodiment.

FIG. 18 is a schematic demonstrating differences between single pointline scan methods and hyperspectral scanning/imaging, according to anillustrative embodiment.

FIG. 19 is a schematic showing a widefield hyperspectral imaging camerawhich can be used (or components of which can be used) in anillustrative embodiment.

FIG. 20 shows images of geological material acquired with a widefieldhyperspectral camera developed by Photon etc. of Montreal QC Canada.

FIG. 21 is a schematic demonstrating advantages and challenges oftraditional Raman spectroscopy.

FIG. 22 shows feasibility of applying hyperspectral imaging technologyto Raman spectroscopy, according to an illustrative embodiment.

FIG. 23 shows proof-of-concept data showing that a Raman signal from theR-MR nanoparticles can be detected with a prototype Raman scanner.

FIG. 24A shows a constructive embodiment of a Raman wide field scannerfor use in the operating room. A surgeon can view a Raman image on anLCD screen (or other screen) built into the scanner, and can operatehands-free using the Raman information as real-time guidance. Theviewing screen may display video superimposed with graphical indicationof the location of R-MR nanoparticles. The screen may show a real-time(or near real-time) view of the operating bed. For example, the screenmay show a real-time view of the patient and the surgeon's handsoperating on the patient in real-time, thereby helping to guide thesurgeon in removal of all portions of the tumor (or other abnormalmaterial to be removed). Optics for directing and/or distributing alaser beam (or laser beams) over the wide field operating bed may becoupled to the screen (e.g., the back of the screen). A processor (notshown) is used for processing images and/or data for display. Resolutionof the view may be adjusted during surgery. For example, once largerportions of tumor (or other abnormal) tissue are removed, the zoom maybe adjusted for magnified viewing of the operating site, for example,for R-MR nanoparticle-enhanced microsurgical resection of tumor (orother abnormal) tissue.

FIG. 24B is a schematic diagram of a wide field Raman imaging apparatusincluding at least one light source for producing excitation light,optics for directing the excitation light onto and/or into a targettissue, a detector for detecting Raman scattered photons emanating fromthe target tissue following illumination by the excitation light, and aprocessor configured to process data corresponding to the Ramanscattered photons detected from the target tissue and to produce animage depicting a wide field corresponding to the target tissue. Thedetected Raman scattered photons are indicative of the presence of aRaman reporter in and/or upon the target tissue, and the image producedby the processor visually indicates position and/or intensity of theRaman reporter within the wide field. The apparatus may additionallyinclude a display for displaying the image, for example, a real-timeseries of such images, to a surgeon during surgery.

FIG. 25 is a schematic illustration of steps of an exemplary method ofthe disclosure.

FIG. 26 is a schematic illustration of an exemplary system of thedisclosure.

FIG. 27 is a schematic illustration of an exemplary system of thedisclosure.

FIG. 28 is a schematic illustration of a system for controlling a Ramanscanner according to the disclosure.

All publications, patent applications, patents, and other referencesmentioned herein, are incorporated by reference in their entirety. Incase of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, willcontrol. In addition, the materials, methods, and examples areillustrative only and not intended to be limiting. Unless otherwisedefined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the samemeaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art towhich this invention belongs. Although methods and materials similar orequivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice ortesting of the present invention, suitable methods and materials aredescribed below.

Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from thefollowing detailed description, and from the claims.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Raman spectroscopy is an emerging technology that allows nondestructiveanalysis of matter by assessing wavelength shift of photons afterinteraction with specific atomic bonds. While intrinsic (non-amplified)Raman signatures of tissues have shown promise in distinguishingmalignant tissues from benign ones, typical acquisition times for suchspectra are at least 10 seconds per spectrum; such times simply cannotprovide sufficient speed for surgical workflow.

Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) represents a way to amplify theRaman signal many orders of magnitude. A Raman (SERS)-MRI nanoparticlethat allows pre- and intraoperative brain tumor imaging has beendescribed (Kircher et al, Nature Medicine, 18:829-835 (2012)),representing the first report of imaging a disease with a Ramannanoparticle. More recently, as described herein, a new generation ofRaman-MRI nanoparticles, termed here “R-MR” nanoparticle has beendeveloped that is characterized by: 1) vastly improved Raman signalamplification, which is over 50-fold higher than that reported for theoriginal published SERS-MRI nanoparticle (FIG. 2), resulting in adetection threshold of only 1.8×10⁻¹⁵ molar (1.8 femtomolar, fM); and 2)use of an FDA-approved superparamagnetic iron oxide (Feraheme) in theR-MR nanoparticle core. Not only does this eliminate potential concernsregarding toxicity of Gadolinium (Gd³⁺) used in many prior Ramannanoparticles, it also increases the sensitivity for MRI detection. Inmany embodiments, R-MR nanoparticles are formed from inert materials(FDA approved core, gold shell, and a silica coating) and include aRaman active reporter embedded within the silica coating. The signal ofsuch a reporter is massively amplified by the gold shell via theso-called localized surface plasmon resonance effect. R-MRs exhibit apharmacokinetic behavior that is fundamentally different fromconventional fluorescent dyes or currently clinically used MRI contrastagents (e.g. Magnevist®). Fluorescent dyes and clinical MRI agents washout of tumors rapidly (within minutes) after i.v. injection. The tumorcontrast is therefore only transient. In contrast, R-MRs do not wash outof the tumor, but are retained stably within the tumor cells, typicallywith a retention time at least 7 days. Without wishing to be bound byany particular theory, we propose that this behavior of R-MRs may bedue, at least in part, to the so-called “enhanced permeability andretention (EPR)” effect, a phenomenon observed in all tumor types. ThisEPR effect means that particles of a certain size and surface chargeenter tumors due to their leaky vasculature and are retained mostly viaphagocytosis by tumor cells and tumor-associated macrophages. Up untilrecently nanoparticles were not able to visualize the EPR effect,because the trapped particle concentration is low, requiring verysensitive detection methods.

In some embodiments, the apparatus and methods described hereinencompass the insight that development of a wide-field scanner wouldprovide a variety of new and valuable uses for various types of Ramannanoparticles, including SERS, SERRS, SERS-MRI, R-MR and othernanoparticles. In some embodiments, a wide-field scanner is providedthat permits imaging of nanoparticles over an entire operative bed inreal time.

Previous Raman imaging systems include so-called Raman microscopes (e.g.InVia, Renishaw, Hoffman Estates, Ill.), which can only image in vitrosamples or small animals up to the size of mice. They are large benchtopinstruments that cannot be used in the operating room and require animaging time of approx. 15 minutes to image a small field-of-view of 1cm². Hand-held Raman spectrometers (e.g. MiniRamIII®; B&WTek, Inc.Newark, Del.) are commercially available, however these do not acquireimages, but only individual Raman spectra from one point in space. Thepresent invention appreciates that neither of these two systems issuitable for rapid wide-field imaging in the operating room.

Nanoparticles which have a unique Raman spectrum consisting of severalnarrow peaks can be imaged without acquiring a full Raman spectrum;acquisition of the wavelengths located at the peaks is sufficient. Only3-5 wavelengths (instead of >1000 for full spectral acquisition) need beacquired. The use of such nanoparticles together with hyperspectraldetection technology, which generates a series of monochromatic imagesat user-specified wavelengths, can achieve instantaneous images acrossthe full field of view. The hyperspectral system can detect spectra of afield of view of up to 1.5 m² at a spatial resolution of 1 mm²instantly. Because the above-described nanoparticles have unique Ramanspectra with several very narrow peaks, it is not necessary to acquirethe full Raman spectra, but sufficient to only acquire the wavelengthslocated at the peaks. An optical pathway can also be provided to acquireimages that are “in focus” independent of the distance of the objectfrom the detector, which may be important for imaging in the operatingroom, e.g., to account for an uneven operating bed, patient motion, andthe like. The present Example describes development of a dedicated Ramanimaging system with a field of view of 40×30 cm (sufficient foressentially all intraoperative scenarios) and a form factor that isoptimized for the operating room.

In conjunction with certain nanoparticles as described herein, in someembodiments, this system enables ultra-sensitive and -specific,real-time image guided cancer detection and resection.

The wide field Raman imaging apparatus described herein provides avariety of particular advantages, including speed, a wide field of view,specificity, depth independence, and multiplexing capabilities. Use ofthe hyperspectral acquisition technique allows spectra to be obtainedsubstantially instantaneously (i.e., within milliseconds), and allowsacquisition of a plurality of spectra at the same time, in contrast toraster- or line-scanning methods that result in very long imageacquisition times. The apparatus is based on Raman spectroscopy andtherefore detects specific Raman “fingerprints”, in contrast tocurrently available wide-field imaging systems based on fluorescence,which may suffer from nonspecific background and autofluorescence thatleads to “false-positives” (e.g., confusion of healthy tissue withcancerous tissue). The apparatus uses an optical pathway design thatacquires images “in focus” independent of the distance of the objectfrom the detector. This feature provides particular advantages forimaging of uneven fields of view expected to be encountered in theoperating room. The apparatus and methods also enable differentiation ofspecific kinds of Raman nanoparticles, i.e., Raman nanoparticles thatdiffer in their Raman reporter. This allows simultaneous imaging of many(10 or more) nanoparticles (e.g., co-injected nanoparticles targetedagainst different cancer epitopes, or nanoparticles injected viadifferent routes [e.g., intravenously, intraarterially, intratumorally,intranodal, into lymphatic vessels etc.]). This feature allows imagingof multiple parameters at the same time, in contrast to fluorescenceimaging, which typically can only differentiate up to 3 differentfluorochromes with certainty.

Features of provided apparatus and methods enable imaging of large fieldof views (e.g., of up to 1.5 m²) in less than a second, and furthermoreenable simultaneous imaging of multiple particles, even on unevenfields. In some embodiments, a real-time (or near real-time) series ofRaman-based images are obtained over a wide field.

Use of the provided wide-filed Raman scanner together with nanoparticlereporters, and particularly with the R-MR nanoparticles as describedherein provides a variety of advantages including, for example,ultra-high sensitivity, reduced (or eliminated) autofluorescence,improved speed (lower acquisition times), improved versatility,photostability, unique pharmacokinetics, inertness, and scaleability.

In some embodiments, R-MR nanoparticles are used in apparatus, systems,and/or methods described herein. R-MR nanoparticle reporters have aRaman detection threshold of 1.8 fM (1.8×10⁻¹⁵ M), an extremely highsensitivity. This sensitivity approaches in vitro detection assays suchas PCR. This sensitivity permits definition of tumor outlines withoutthe need for a targeting moiety, exploiting the so-called “enhancedpermeability and retention (EPR)” effect that all tumors exhibit. Incontrast, the sensitivity of fluorescence imaging is only 10⁻⁹-10⁻¹²which is significantly less sensitive than the R-MR nanoparticlesdescribed herein, and would not allow imaging of nanoparticle EPReffects.

Furthermore, autofluorescence is common to all imaging methods based onfluorescence. Autofluorescence can cause an imaging system to mistakenlyidentify healthy for cancerous tissue. In contrast, Raman spectroscopyis based on a principle fundamentally different from fluorescence, andissues associated with autofluorescence are not observed.

Regarding image acquisition speed, The high Raman signal amplificationvia the SERRS effect allows ultra-short acquisition times, as describedherein. As the EPR effect is observed in all tumor types, R-MRs work ina wide variety of different tumor types, even without any associatedtargeting moiety. In contrast, a targeted nanoparticle would have to bedesigned and FDA-approved for each target (tumor) separately.

R-MRs require no targeting moiety (such as an antibody, affibody,peptide, etc.) on their surface. Non-targeted embodiments permit easierand less expensive production. R-MRs, in contrast to organicfluorochromes, do not photobleach. A problem with many imagingtechnologies is that photobleaching prevents imaging in contexts thatinvolve or require prolonged laser exposure (e.g., as would be expectedduring a lengthy surgical procedure). Use of Raman reporters, such asthe R-MR nanoparticles, that do not photobleach, have the additionaladvantage that they can be useful in such contexts that involve orrequire prolonged laser exposure.

The contrast kinetics of R-MRs (stable retention within tumor cells)allows repeated pre- and intraoperative MRI and Raman scanning, forexample, using just a single injection. Alternative imagingtechnologies, for example, those utilizing fluorochrome and clinical MRIagents, wash rapidly out of tissues, therefore typically requiringrepeated rejections. Additionally, such technologies often cause issueswith false positive contrast due to leaking into the resection bed.Embodiments of provided Raman technologies avoid these identifiedproblems.

R-MRs are based on an RDA-approved core. Gold and silica are inertmaterials, and nanoparticles made of these materials have been shown tobe nontoxic in cell cultures, mice, and in several clinical trials.Furthermore, facile and rapid synthesis of R-MRs allows for their largescale production.

In some embodiments, apparatus and methods described herein are used inconjunction with Raman-based ablation and resection systems describedherein.

Proof-of-Concept Data:

Both in vitro and in vivo proof-of-concept data demonstrate the R-MRs'ability to outline multiple different tumor types. This includesoutlining the bulk tumor, residual tumor in the resection bed that was“missed” by the surgeon, satellite metastases, and even individual tumorcells. (See Figures). Raman images shown in these Figures were acquiredwith a Renishaw InVia Raman microscope, which allows acquisition ofareas up to approx. 3×3 cm², cannot image animals larger than mice, andnecessitates imaging times of 15 to 60 min/image. While the datademonstrate the feasibility of the R-MR nanoparticle approach, it alsoillustrates the need for the high-speed wide field Raman imagingapparatus described herein to translate this approach into humans.

Raman Spectroscopy

Raman spectroscopy provides information about the vibrational state ofmolecules. Many molecules have atomic bonds capable of existing in anumber of vibrational states. Such a molecule is able to absorb incidentradiation that matches a transition between two of its allowedvibrational states and to subsequently emit the radiation. Thesevibrational transitions exhibit characteristic energies that permitdefinition and characterization of the bonds that are present in acompound. Analysis of vibrational transitions therefore permitsspectroscopic molecular identification.

Most often, absorbed radiation is re-radiated at the same wavelength, aprocess designated Rayleigh or elastic scattering. In some instances,the re-radiated radiation can contain slightly more or slightly lessenergy than the absorbed radiation (depending on the allowablevibrational states and the initial and final vibrational states of themolecule). The energy difference is consumed by a transition betweenallowable vibrational states, and these vibrational transitions exhibitcharacteristic values for particular chemical bonds, which accounts forthe specificity of vibrational spectroscopies such as Ramanspectroscopy.

The result of the energy difference between the incident and re-radiatedradiation is manifested as a shift in the wavelength between theincident and re-radiated radiation, and the degree of difference isdesignated the Raman shift (RS), measured in units of wavenumber(inverse length). If the incident light is substantially monochromatic(single wavelength) as it is when using a laser source, the scatteredlight that differs in frequency can be more easily distinguished fromRayleigh scattered light.

Raman spectroscopy may utilize high efficiency solid-state lasers,efficient laser rejection filters, and silicon CCD detectors. Ingeneral, the wavelength and bandwidth of light used to illuminate asample is not critical, so long as the other optical elements of thesystem operate in the same spectral range as the light source.

In general, a sample should be irradiated with monochromatic light(e.g., substantially monochromatic light). Suitable light sourcesinclude various lasers and polychromatic light source-monochromatorcombinations. It is recognized that the bandwidth of the irradiatinglight, resolution of the wavelength resolving element(s), and thespectral range of a detector determine how well a spectral feature canbe observed, detected, or distinguished from other spectral features.The combined properties of these elements (e.g., the light source, thefilter, grating, or other mechanism used to distinguish Raman scatteredlight by wavelength) define the spectral resolution of the Raman signaldetection system. The known relationships of these elements enable theskilled artisan to select appropriate components in readily calculableways. Limitations in spectral resolution of the system (e.g.,limitations relating to the bandwidth of irradiating light, gratinggroove density, slit width, interferometer stepping, and other factors)can limit the ability to resolve, detect, or distinguish spectralfeatures. The separation and shape of Raman scattering signals can beused to determine the acceptable limits of spectral resolution for thesystem for any Raman spectral features.

Typically, a Raman peak that both is distinctive of a substance ofinterest (e.g., a Raman nanoparticle or intrinsic species describedherein) and exhibits an acceptable signal-to-noise ratio can beselected. Multiple Raman shift values characteristic of the substance(e.g., Raman nanoparticle or intrinsic species) can be assessed, as canthe shape of a Raman spectral region that may include multiple Ramanpeaks.

Raman Nanoparticles

In some embodiments, methods of the disclosure include use of Ramannanoparticles, e.g., surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)nanoparticles or surface-enhanced (resonance) Raman scattering (SERRS)nanoparticles. SERS and SERRS refer to an increase in Raman scatteringexhibited by certain molecules in proximity to certain metal surfaces(see, U.S. Pat. No. 5,567,628; McNay et al., Applied Spectroscopy65:825-837 (2011)). The SERS effect can be enhanced through combinationwith a resonance Raman effect. The SERS effect can be increased byselecting a frequency for an excitation light that is in resonance witha major absorption band of a molecule being illuminated. In short, asignificant increase in the intensity of Raman light scattering can beobserved when molecules are brought into close proximity to (but notnecessarily in contact with) certain metal surfaces. Metal surfaces canbe roughened or coated with minute metal particles. The increase inintensity can be on the order of several million-fold or more.

Nanoparticles that can be detected using Raman spectroscopy can be usedin the methods and devices described herein. Raman nanoparticles andSERS nanoparticles and methods of their production are known anddescribed in, e.g., U.S. Publ. No. 2012/0179029; Kircher et al., NatureMed. 18:829-834 (2012); Yigit et al., Am. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging2:232-241 (2012); Zhang et al., Small. 7:3261-9 (2011); Zhang et al.,Curr. Pharm. Biotechnol. 11:654-661 (2010).

In some embodiments, Raman nanoparticles (e.g., SERS nanoparticles) areadministered to a subject having or suspected of having cancer. Withoutbeing bound to theory, it is believed that such nanoparticles target toand/or accumulate within, on the surface of, or proximate to cancercells by enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) as described in,e.g., Kircher et al., Nature Med. 18:829-834 (2012); and Adiseshaiah etal., Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Nanomed. Nanobiotechnol. 2:99-112 (2010).Thus, detection of Raman nanoparticles indicates such cells and/ortissues are cancerous.

In some embodiments, Raman reporter detection is combined with one ormore additional modalities for identification of tissue to be resectedor ablated. For example, Raman reporter detection can be combined withvideo imaging, MRI, NMR, PET, SPECT, CT, X-ray, ultrasound,photoacoustic detection, and/or fluorescent detection, for example.Also, Raman nanoparticles may be designed such that they are detected byreporter detection combined with one or more other modalities, such asvideo imaging, MRI, NMR, PET, SPECT, CT, X-ray, ultrasound,photoacoustic detection, and/or fluorescent detection, for example. Suchnanoparticles are described in, e.g., Kircher et al., Nature Med.18:829-834 (2012); PCT/US13/57636 and PCT/US13/76475.

Nanoparticles used in accordance with the present disclosure, in theory,can be of any shape (regular or irregular) or design. In someembodiments, a nanoparticle can be or comprise a sphere. Additionally oralternatively, a nanoparticle can be or comprises a star, a rod, a cube,a cuboid, a cone, a pyramid, a cylinder, a prism, a tube, a ring, atetrahedron, a hexagon, an octagon, a cage, or any irregular shapes. Insome embodiments, a nanoparticle has a shape corresponding to that ofits substrate; in some embodiments, a nanoparticle has a shape differentfrom that of its substrate. In some embodiments, where the nanoparticleand substrate have different shapes, one or more layers applied to thesubstrate has a thickness that varies at different locations within thenanoparticle

In some embodiments, the greatest dimension or at least one dimension ofa nanoparticle may be about or less than 10 μm, 5 μm, 1 μm, 800 nm, 500nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 180 nm, 150 nm, 120 nm, 110 nm, 100 nm, 90nm, 80 nm, 70 nm, 60 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 10 nm, 5 nm, 2 nm,or even 1 nm. In some embodiments, the greatest dimension or at leastone dimension of a nanoparticle may be more than 10 μm, 5 μm, 1 μm, 800nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 180 nm, 150 nm, 120 nm, 110 nm, 100nm, 90 nm, 80 nm, 70 nm, 60 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 10 nm, 5 nm,2 nm, or even 1 nm. In some embodiments, the greatest dimension or atleast one dimension of a nanoparticle may be in a range of about 1 μm toabout 5 nm or about 200 nm to about 5 nm. In some embodiments, thegreatest dimension or at least one dimension of a nanoparticle may be ina range of about 300 nm to about 50 nm. In some embodiments, thegreatest dimension or at least one dimension of a nanoparticle may be ina range of about 130 nm to about 90 nm. In some embodiments, thegreatest dimension or at least one dimension of a nanoparticle may be ina range of any two values above. In some embodiments, the dimension of ananoparticle is a diameter, wherein the diameter can be in a range asmentioned above. In some embodiments, the dimensions of a nanoparticlecan be represented by a length, a width or a height in X, Y and Z axis,wherein each dimension can be in a range as mentioned above.

It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that particular sizesand/or shapes may be especially desirable or useful in differentcontexts. For example, nanoparticles for in vivo application typicallyhave a size range from about 0.5 nm to about 200 nm; nanoparticles forin vitro application can have a size range from about 10 nm to about1000 nm.

In some embodiments, nanoparticle sizes and surface charges are tuned tobe provided to sites of interest for certain applications. In manyembodiments, a site of interest is a tumor. In some embodiments,nanoparticles are designed and constructed to enter tumors via theirleaky vasculature. In some embodiments, nanoparticles are designed andconstructed to enter and/or be retained in tumors via phagocytosis bytumor (associated) cells (known as “enhanced permeability and retention(EPR)” effect). In certain embodiments, nanoparticles do not wash out ofa tumor, but are retained stably within the tumor (e.g., retention timeat least 7 days).

In various embodiments, a nanoparticle described herein can comprise asubstrate, a plurality of layers (including one or more condensationlayers; in some embodiments at least two condensation layers), and oneor more dopant entities (in some embodiments at least two dopantentities). In some embodiments, nanoparticles are susceptible to imagingby multiple modalities.

In certain embodiments, a substrate comprises iron oxide for T2 MRIand/or gold substrate for photoacoustics, CT, and X-Rays. In certainembodiments, a plurality of layers are or comprise silica. In certainembodiments, the closest layer to a substrate comprises asurface-enhanced resonance Raman scattering (SE(R)RS)-active agent. Incertain embodiments, such a nanoparticle further comprises an outerlayer doped with a NIR fluorescent agent. In certain embodiments, thereis a buffer layer between the two layers. In certain embodiments,provided nanoparticles can be employed with other agents such as MRI,PET, SPECT, CT, X-Rays or US agents.

Substrate

In accordance with the present invention, a nanoparticle has at leastone substrate, which can be or comprise one or more materials, forexample depending on applications for which the nanoparticle will beutilized. Exemplary substrate materials include, but are not limited to,metals, non-metals, and semi-metals, or oxides thereof (i.e., metaloxides, non-metal oxides, or semi-metal oxides) (e.g., iron oxide),liposomes, upconverting materials, semiconductors, and combinationsthereof. Any materials used in a layer described below can be used asmaterials of a substrate. In some embodiments, a layer can be ananoparticle's substrate. In some embodiments, photoacoustic and/orphotothermal enhancements can be achieved by associatingagents/molecules which induce surface phonon enhancement, within thesubstrate or layers.

In some embodiments, a substrate can be or contain any metal or anyother material capable of generating localized surface plasmonresonances (LSPRs). In many embodiments, a metal is a SE(R)RS activemetal. Such a metal can be any (metallic) substance capable ofsustaining a (localized) surface plasmon resonance. In some embodiments,a SE(R)RS active metal is or comprises Au, Ag, Cu, Na, K, Cr, Al, or Li.A substrate can also contain alloys of metals. In some embodiments, asubstrate is or contains Au, Ag or a combination thereof. In certainembodiments, a substrate can provide a detectable photoacoustic signal.

A substrate can be of any shape or design, and may contain one or morestructural elements. In some embodiments, a nanoscale or at least onestructural element of it is spherical. In some embodiments, a substrateor at least one structural element of it is non-spherical. In someembodiments, a substrate has structural elements selected from the groupconsisting of spheres, rods, stars, shells, ellipses, triangles, cubes,cages, pyramids and combinations thereof. For example, a substrate canconsist of or comprise a star overlaid with at least one shell. To giveanother example, a substrate can consist of or comprise two or moreconcentric shells. In some particular embodiments, a substrate canconsist of or comprise a central structure surrounded by satellitestructures.

In some embodiments, a substrate comprises at least two structuralelements, separated from one another within a distance suitable for aplasmon hybridization effect. A distance can be an average distance. Incertain embodiments, a distance between two separated structuralelements is less than 100 nm, 50 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 15 nm, 10 nm, 8 nm, 5nm or 3 nm, or 1 nm. In certain embodiments, a distance between twoseparated structural elements is in a range of about 100 nm to about 50nm, about 50 nm to about 30 nm, about 30 nm to about 1 nm, or any twovalues above. In certain embodiments, individual structural elements areseparated from one another or filled by a layer.

In some embodiments, a substrate is star-shaped. As used herein, theterm “star shaped” refers to a body portion from which a plurality ofprotrusions extend. In some embodiments, a star shape is a true starshape. A “true star shape”, as that term is used herein, comprises abody portion from which a plurality of protrusions extend radially. Insome embodiments, a true star shape has at least one access of symmetry.In some embodiments, a true star shape is substantially symmetrical. Insome embodiments, protrusions in a true star shape have approximatelythe same length. In some embodiments, protrusions have approximately thesame width. In some embodiments, protrusions have substantiallyidentical structures. In some embodiments, a true star shape has a bodyportion that is substantially spherical. In some embodiments, a truestar shape has a body portion that is substantially rectangular orsquare. In some embodiments, protrusions substantially cover the bodysurface. In some embodiments, protrusions are configured on the bodysurface for high polarizabilities, for example so that intense localizedsurface plasmons can arise. It is contemplated that when a particlecontains radially-protruding spikes, the coordinated electronoscillation becomes corralled into narrow regions (i.e., the tips)resulting in the build-up of charge in a very small region. Thus, acertain number of spikes results in an electromagnetic enhancement overa geometry which does not contain any. Substrates with an excess ofspikes or asymmetric features, on the other hand, have smallerpolarizabilities and cannot sustain large surface plasmon resonancesbecause they encounter strong damping from the significant increase inelectron-electron collisions, making coordinated oscillations ofelectrons weak and short-lived.

In some embodiments, the greatest dimension or at least one dimension ofa substrate or its each component may be about or less than 5 μm, 1 μm,800 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 90 nm, 80 nm, 70 nm, 60nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 15 nm, 10 nm, 5 nm, 2 nm, 1 nm or 0.5nm. In some embodiments, the greatest dimension or at least onedimension of a substrate or its each component may be more than 5 μm, 1μm, 800 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 90 nm, 80 nm, 70 nm,60 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 15 nm, 10 nm, 5 nm, 2 nm, 1 nm or 0.5nm. In some embodiments, the greatest dimension or at least onedimension of a substrate or its each component may be in a range ofabout 500 nm to about 5 nm or about 150 nm to about 5 nm. In someembodiments, the greatest dimension or at least one dimension of asubstrate or its each component may be in a range of about 100 nm toabout 90 nm, about 90 nm to about 80 nm, about 80 nm to about 70 nm,about 70 nm to about 60 nm, about 60 nm to about 50 nm, about 50 nm toabout 40 nm, about 40 nm to about 30 nm, about 30 nm to about 20 nm,about 20 nm to about 10 nm, about 10 nm to about 5 nm. In someembodiments, the greatest dimension or at least one dimension of asubstrate or its each component may be in a range of any two valuesabove.

A substrate with a desired size can be grown as metal colloids by anumber of techniques well known in the art. For example, chemical orphotochemical reduction of metal ions in solution using any number ofreducing agents has been described. Likewise, syntheses of substratescan be carried out in constrained volumes, e.g., inside a vesicle.Substrates can also be made via electrical discharge in solution.Substrates can also be made by irradiating a metal with a high intensitypulsed laser.

Layers

Nanoparticles provided by the present disclosure may include a pluralityof layers. In some embodiments, one or more inner layers can construct ananoparticle's substrate.

In some embodiments, a layer substantially covers at least one surfaceof the substrate (or of another layer that itself substantially coversat least one surface of the substrate or of another layer). In some suchembodiments, a layer substantially encapsulates the substrate.

In some embodiments, adjacent layers are in direct physical contact withone another; in some embodiments, adjacent layers are separated from oneanother so that an inter-layer space is defined; in some embodiments,such an inter-layer space is empty; in some embodiments, such aninter-layer contains liquid, etc.

A layer can have any size and shape. In some embodiments, a layer can beporous. In some embodiments, a layer is in a shape of a thin stripe ormat. In some embodiments, one or more layers substantially or partiallycover the surface of a substrate or another layer.

In some embodiments, layers are arranged as shells. In some embodiments,at least two shells can be partially extended from at least onesubstrate, concentrically extended from at least one substrate, orextended asymmetrically from at least one substrate. Shells can haveequal thicknesses, but can also have different thicknesses.

A plurality of layers each can respectively contain one or morematerials. Layers (e.g., shells) can be or comprise, but are not limitedto, one and the same material (e.g., consisting of, but not limited to,compounds/materials from the group of metal/semi-metal/non-metal,-oxides, -sulfides, -carbides, -nitrides), layers can consist of atleast two different materials (e.g., from the groups ofmetal/semi-metal/non-metal, -oxides, -sulfides, -carbides, -nitrides,polymers, and combinations thereof), layers can consist of the same ordifferent materials in any combination (e.g., consisting of, but notlimited to, compounds/materials from the groups ofmetal/semi-metal/non-metal, -oxides, -sulfide, -carbides, -nitrides,((bio-)degradable) polymers, (poly)peptides, nucleic acids (DNA), andcombinations thereof) with at least one of them being porous.

In some embodiments, a layer is synthesized by reacting precursors andthe resulting layer is a condensation layer. Nanoparticles describedherein, in some embodiments, comprise at least a condensation layer andat least another layer, which can be another condensation layer or anyother layers.

According to various embodiments of the present disclosure, a layer canbe or comprise metal (e.g., gold, silver, and the like), semi-metal ornon-metal, and metal/semi-metal/non-metal oxides including silica(SiO₂), titania (TiO₂), alumina (Al₂O₃), zirconia (ZrO₂), germania(GeO₂), tantalum pentoxide (Ta₂O₅), NbO₂, etc., and non-oxides includingmetal/semi-metal/non-metal borides, carbides, sulfide and nitrides, suchas titanium and its combinations (Ti, TiB₂, TiC, TiN, etc.).

Additionally or alternatively, materials of a layer can be polymersincluding PEG and PLGA/PEG, and polymeric chelators (e.g., poly DOTA,dendrimer backbone, poly DTPA, or dendrimer alone), (multiwalled) carbonnanotubes, graphene, silicone, peptides, nucleic acids, and combinationsthereof.

In some embodiments, a layer is or comprises a dielectric. For example,silica can serve as a dielectric.

In some embodiments, each layer in a nanoparticle can be or contain thesame material(s). To give one particular example, multilayers in thenanoparticle are all silica layers.

In some embodiments, a layer is or includes silica. For example, asilica layer can be synthesized from a silica precursor including, butnot limited to, alkylalkoxysilane; ethylpolysilicate;tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS); tetramethylorthosilicate (TMOS);partially hydrolyzed TEOS; partially hydrolyzed TMOS or a combinationthereof.

In some embodiments, the present invention provides technologies thatpermit control of layer thickness. For example, in many embodiments,condensation layer thickness is controlled by selection of solventcomposition and/or content in the precursor solution. For example, insome embodiments, where a solvent composition comprising water isutilized, water content can control layer thickness. For example, insome embodiments, the well-known Stöber method can be adapted for use inpreparing one or more silica layers in accordance with the presentdisclosure. Typically, the synthesis involves using a solution of one ormore precursors in water and alcohol(s). A water content as used hereinrefers to the ratio of the volume of water to the total volume of aprecursor solution.

In some embodiments, condensation reactions utilizing a water-containingsolvent achieve different layer thicknesses with different watercontent. In some embodiments, a water content for synthesis is about 1.0v/v/%, about 2.0 v/v %, about 3.0 v/v %, about 4.0 v/v %, about 4.5 v/v%, about 5.0 v/v %, about 5.5 v/v %, about 6.0 v/v %, about 6.5 v/v %,about 7.0 v/v %, about 7.5 v/v %, about 8.0 v/v %, about 8.5 v/v %,about 9.0 v/v %, about 9.5 v/v %, or about 10.0 v/v %. In someembodiments, water content for synthesis is in a range of any two valuesabove.

In some embodiments, a layer is or includes one or more polymers,particularly polymers that which have been approved for use in humans bythe U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under 21 C.F.R. §177.2600,including, but not limited to, polyesters (e.g., polylactic acid,poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), polycaprolactone, polyvalerolactone,poly(1,3-dioxan-2-one)); polyanhydrides (e.g., poly(sebacic anhydride));polyethers (e.g., polyethylene glycol); polyurethanes;polymethacrylates; polyacrylates; polycyanoacrylates; copolymers of PEGand poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO).

In some embodiments, a layer is or includes at least a degradablematerial. Such a degradable material can be hydrolytically degradable,biodegradable, thermally degradable, enzymatically degradable, and/orphotolytically degradable polyelectrolytes. In some embodiments,degradation may enable release of one or more dopant entities (e.g.,agent for delivery) associated with a particle described herein.

Degradable polymers known in the art, include, for example, certainpolyesters, polyanhydrides, polyorthoesters, polyphosphazenes,polyphosphoesters, certain polyhydroxyacids, polypropylfumerates,polycaprolactones, polyamides, poly(amino acids), polyacetals,polyethers, biodegradable polycyanoacrylates, biodegradablepolyurethanes and polysaccharides. For example, specific biodegradablepolymers that may be used include but are not limited to polylysine,poly(lactic acid) (PLA), poly(glycolic acid) (PGA), poly(caprolactone)(PCL), poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLG), poly(lactide-co-caprolactone)(PLC), and poly(glycolide-co-caprolactone) (PGC). Another exemplarydegradable polymer is poly (beta-amino esters), which may be suitablefor use in accordance with the present application.

In general, any layer within a particle described herein can have athickness independently and within any ranges. In some embodiments, someor all layers have the same thickness or within the same range.

A layer on a substrate can have an average thickness in various ranges.In some embodiments, an averaged thickness is about or less than 5 μm, 1μm, 800 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 90 nm, 80 nm, 70 nm,60 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 15 nm, 10 nm, 5 nm, 1 nm, 0.5 nm, or0.1 nm. In some embodiments, an averaged thickness is about or greaterthan 5 μm, 1 μm, 800 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 90 nm,80 nm, 70 nm, 60 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 15 nm, 10 nm, 5 nm, 1nm, 0.5 nm, or 0.1 nm. In some embodiments, an averaged thickness is ina range from about 0.1 nm to about 5 μm, about 0.5 nm to about 200 nm,about 5 nm to about 50 nm or about 10 to about 30 nm. In someembodiments, an averaged thickness is in a range of any two valuesabove.

In some embodiments, a layer can have or be modified to have one or morefunctional groups. Such functional groups (within or on the surface of alayer) can be used for association with any agents (e.g., detectableentities, targeting entities, or PEG). Such associated agents can bedopant entities, if associated (e.g., doped) within layers. For example,targeting entities and/or PEG can be associated within one or morelayers comprising degradable polymers. When the degradable polymersdegrade, the dopant entities can be exposed.

In some embodiments, the surface of an outer-most layer can be modifiedwith reagents to add and/or modify the functional groups on the outerlayer (e.g., compounds like, but not limited to, mercaptosilanols,aminosilanols can be used to introduce sulfhydryl or amine groups,respectively, to silica, tantalia, etc.; or catechol-amines can be usedto introduce cationic amine-functionality to titania, etc.; oxidizingthe newly introduced sulfhydryl-group with hydrogen peroxide to generateanionic sulfonate-functionality can further chemically alter theintroduced groups). Apart from changing the surface charge byintroducing or modifying surface functionality, the introduction ofdifferent functional groups allows the conjugation of linkers (e.g.,(cleavable or (bio-)degradable) polymers such as, but not limited to,polyethylene glycol, polypropylene glycol, PLGA, etc.), targeting/homingagents (e.g., such as, but not limited to, small molecules (e.g.,folates, dyes, etc), (poly)peptides (e.g., RGD, epidermal growth factor,chlorotoxin, etc), antibodies, proteins, etc.), contrast/imaging agents(e.g., fluorescent dyes, (chelated) radioisotopes (SPECT, PET),MR-active agents, CT-agents), therapeutic agents (e.g., small moleculedrugs, therapeutic (poly)peptides, therapeutic antibodies, (chelated)radioisotopes, etc), or combinations thereof.

Dopant Entity

In accordance with many embodiments of the present disclosure, dopantentities can be associated within one or more layers of a nanoparticle.In some embodiments, dopant entities are attached directly or indirectlyto layers. In some embodiments, dopant entities are distributed withinlayer; in some embodiments, dopant entities are discretely localizedwithin layers.

In general, dopant entities can be encapsulated independently within anypossible distance from a substrate of a nanoparticle. Exemplary distanceincludes 5 μm, 1 μm, 800 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 90nm, 80 nm, 70 nm, 60 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 15 nm, 10 nm, 5 nm,1 nm, 0.5 nm, or 0.1 nm.

In some embodiments, dopant entities are positioned within apredetermined distance from the surface of a substrate or an adjacentlayer. Such a distance in various embodiments can be about or less than1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm, 4 nm, 5 nm, 6 nm, 7 nm, 8 nm, 9 nm, 10 nm, 15 nm, 20nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, or 500 nm. Insome embodiments, a distance between a dopant entity and the surface ofa substrate is a range of 2 nm to 5 nm, 5 nm to 10 nm, or 10 nm to 15nm. In some embodiments, dopant entities can be in direct contact to thesurface of a substrate or an adjacent layer.

In some embodiments, surface primers can be used after substratesynthesis. Exemplary surface primers include, but are not limited to,functionalized silica agents such as MPTMS and APTMS, or polymer (e.g.,polyethyleneglycol-(PEG)-thiol).

In some embodiments, dopant entities have sufficient affinity for one ormore components of a nanoparticle to permit displacement of a cappingagent and/or to permit high density and/or close surface localizedloading of the dopant entity(ies) into or onto the nanoparticle. Acapping agent can be an entity that can be or is displaceable associatedwith a substrate. Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory,it is noted here that, in some embodiments, capping agents can play animportant role in substrate synthesis. In some embodiments, cappingagents control the size and geometry of a substrate. In someembodiments, capping agents are present after synthesis as an adsorbedmonolayer on the synthesized substrate. In some embodiments, cappingagents are strongly adsorbed to the surface of a substrate. In someembodiments, capping agents provide stabilization and/or preventaggregation of substrates. Exemplary capping agents include, but are notlimited to, organic agents such as citrate, citric acid, ascorbic acid,ascorbate, palmitoylascorbate, tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphoniumchloride, and amino acids. In some such instances, some or all cappingagents are ultimately removed from a substrate by surface primers. Incontrast to traditional surface priming methods wherein capping agentsare displaced by surface primers, in some embodiments of the presentdisclosure a capping agent itself is employed to enable substrateencapsulation.

In various embodiments, one or more layers can have one or moreentities/agents (e.g., detectable entities, targeting entities, or PEG)doped within. In general, any entity of interest can be utilized as adopant entity in accordance with the present invention. A single dopantentity (or a layer/substrate) can be susceptible to imaging in multiplemodalities.

In some embodiments, a dopant entity is a detectable entity including,but not limited to, SE(R)RS-active agent, fluorochromes (e.g., nearinfrared (metal-enhanced fluorescence agent, 2-photon fluorescenceagent), MRI agents, photoacoustic-active dyes, upconverting materials,positron emission tomography (PET) tracers, single photon emissiontomography (SPECT) tracers, computed tomography (CT) agents, X-Raysagents, ultrasound (US) agents and combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, layers can be doped with compounds/materials suchas, but not limited to, SER(R)S-active dyes, (near infrared) fluorescentdyes, luminescent compounds, photoacoustic-active dyes, upconvertingmaterials (e.g., consisting of materials from the group of therare-earth metals and/or transition metals), (laser) pumping materials(e.g., consisting of, but not limited to, materials from the group ofthe rare-earth metal- and/or transition metal-based compounds), “slowlight”-inducing materials (e.g., praseodymium-based compounds),MRI-active materials (e.g., consisting of, but not limited to rare-earthmetals and/or transition metals such as gadolinium, manganese,iron(-oxides)). In some embodiments, at least one layer is doped withfor instance a SERRS-active dye and at least one other layer is dopedwith for instance a near infrared fluorescent dye. In certainembodiments, some layers do not contain dopants but serve as spacersand/or separators between two dopant-containing shells. Layers canadditionally be doped with therapeutic agents consisting of, but notlimited by, (radiolabeled-) small molecule-, chelate-, peptide-,protein-, antibody, RNA, DNA, aptamer-based compounds/materials, andcombinations thereof.

SE(R)RS-Active Agents

In some embodiments, a dopant entity is or comprises a dye, for example,a resonance dye. A dopant entity can be or comprise an agent useful inRaman spectroscopy (e.g., SE(R)RS-active agents). Exemplary dopantentities include, but are not limited to, those agents described in theart such as in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,306,403, 6,002,471, and 6,174,677, thecontents of which are incorporated by reference.

In some particular embodiments, a dopant entity is SE(R)RS- and/orphotoacoustic active agent(s). In some particular embodiments, a highdensity of a SE(R)RS-active agent located close to a substratecontributes to unprecedented Raman sensitivity achieved by a particledescribed herein. SE(R)RS-active agents generally benefit from signalintensity enhancement in the proximity of a metal surface. In accordancewith the present disclosure, a skilled artisan in the art would becapable to choose a SE(R)RS-active agent, to achieve chemicalenhancement and/or electromagnetic enhancement, considering factors suchas substrate materials, substrate configurations, layer material, etc.Such a SE(R)RS-active agent can have a charge transfer effect, from ametal to the molecule, or from the molecule to the metal.

A SE(R)RS-active agent refers to a molecule that is capable ofgenerating a SERS or SE(R)RS spectrum when appropriately illuminated.Non-limiting examples of SE(R)RS-active agents include phthalocyaninessuch as methyl, nitrosyl, sulphonyl and amino phthalocyanines,naphthalocyanines, chalcogen-based dyes, azomethines, cyanines,squaraines, and xanthines such as the methyl, nitro, sulphano and aminoderivatives. Each of these may be substituted in any conventionalmanner, giving rise to a large number of useful labels. It is noted thatthe choice of a SE(R)RS-active agent can be influenced by factors suchas the resonance frequency of the molecule, the resonance frequency ofother molecules present in a sample, etc.

Typically, detecting a SE(R)RS signal involves using incident light froma laser. The exact frequency chosen will depend on the SE(R)RS-activeagent, and metal surface. Frequencies in visible or near-infraredspectrum tend, on the whole, to give rise to better surface enhancementeffects for noble metal surfaces such as silver and gold. However, it ispossible to envisage situations in which other frequencies, for instancein the ultraviolet range might be used. The selection and, if necessary,tuning of an appropriate light source, with an appropriate frequency andpower, will be well within the capabilities of one of ordinary skill inthe art, particularly on referring to the available SE(R)RS literature.

The Raman enhancement generally is proportional to the density of aSE(R)RS-active agent associated (e.g., adsorbed) on a metal surface. Asurprisingly high density of a SE(R)RS-active agent adsorbed on asubstrate surface in accordance with the present disclosure maycontribute to the superior sensitivity of particles disclosed herein.

Fluorescent Agents

In some embodiments, a dopant entity is or comprises a fluorescentdye/agent (e.g., near infrared (NIR) fluorescent dye). For example,fluorescent dyes/agents including, but not limited to, polymethines,cyanines, (na)phthalocyanines, porphorines, merocyanines, (pe)rylene(bisimides), squaraines, anthocyanins, phycocyanins, bodipys, rotaxanes,rhodamines, certain organometallic complexes, can be used in accordancewith the present invention.

In some embodiments, a fluorescent dye/agent has a predetermineddistance from a substrate by means of synthesis method describedtherein. In some embodiments, a nanoparticle is doped with a nearinfrared (NIR) fluorescent dye and other agents.

MRI Agents

In some embodiments, a dopant entity is or comprises an MRI agent. Insome embodiments, the amount or number of MRI agents associated with alayer can be about 1 to Ser. No. 10/000,000 MRI agents or about 5000 to500,000 MRI agents. See US Patent Application Publication No.20120179029, the contents of which are incorporated by references.

Some embodiments of a MRI agent can be Gd(-salts), iron oxide,paramagnetic chemical exchange saturation transfer (CEST) agents, 19Factive materials, manganese, melanin, or a substance that shortens orelongates T1 or T2 and a combination thereof. In certain embodiments, aGd MRI agent can be a compound such as DOTA-Gd, DTPA-Gd, Gd within apolymeric chelator, and Gd immobilized by negative charges on a layer.In certain embodiments, an iron oxide MRI agent can be a compound suchas a small paramagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) or an ultrasmall SPIO with orwithout a dextran or other stabilizing layer. In certain embodiments, aparamagnetic CEST MRI agent can be a compound such as lanthanidecomplexes.

In some embodiments, MRI agents can be linked to a layer via a linkagesuch as a maleimide linkage, NHS ester, click chemistry, or anothercovalent or non-covalent approach or a combination thereof. In someembodiments, MRI agents can also be loaded without addition of anyexogenous agent, i.e., only layer(s) and MRI agent.

Alternatively or in addition to MRI agents, one or more other agents canbe associated with a particle. Exemplary diagnostic agents including aPET (e.g., ¹⁸F, ⁶⁴Cu, ¹¹C, ¹³N, ¹⁵O, and the like), SPECT (e.g., ⁹⁹Tc,⁶⁷Ga, ¹⁹²Ir and the like), fluorochrome (e.g., Alexa 647, Alexa 488 andthe like), radio nuclide (e.g., alpha-emitting radionuclides (e.g.,At-211, Bi-212, Bi-213, Ra-223, and Ac-225), beta-emitting radionuclides(e.g., Cu-67, Y-90, Ag-111, I-131, Pm-149, Sm-153, Ho-166, Lu-177,Re-186, and Re-188)), and the like, can be associated with a particleand be detected using appropriate detection systems. In certainembodiments, the use of a radionuclide can be used to induce signal viaCerenkov radiation.

In addition to detectable entities or alternatively, particles describedherein can be prepared with dopant entities that are agents intended foradministration or delivery. In some embodiments, such an agent remainsassociated with the particle after administration of the particle; insome embodiments, such an agent is released or otherwise dissociatedfrom the particle after administration.

Any of a wide range of dopant entities may be used in accordance withthe present invention. For example, dopant entities may be or compriseany therapeutic agents (e.g., antibiotics, NSAIDs, angiogenesisinhibitors, neuroprotective agents), cytotoxic agents, diagnostic agents(e.g., contrast agents; radionuclides; and fluorescent, luminescent, andmagnetic moieties), targeting agents, prophylactic agents (e.g.,vaccines), and/or nutraceutical agents (e.g., vitamins, minerals, etc.),or other substances (e.g., salt) that may be suitable for introductionto biological tissues, including pharmaceutical excipients andsubstances for cosmetics, and the like. Exemplary dopant entities mayinclude, but are not limited to, therapeutic agents and/or imagingagents.

Targeting Agents

In some embodiments, Raman nanoparticles described herein include one ormore targeting agent to facilitate and/or enhance the targeting ofnanoparticles to a diseased tissue. Targeting agents include, e.g.,various specific ligands, such as antibodies, monoclonal antibodies andtheir fragments, folate, mannose, galactose and other mono-, di-, andoligosaccharides, and RGD peptide. Additional examples of targetingagents include, but are not limited to, nucleic acids (e.g., RNA andDNA), polypeptides (e.g., receptor ligands, signal peptides, avidin,Protein A, and antigen binding proteins), polysaccharides, biotin,hydrophobic groups, hydrophilic groups, drugs, and any organic moleculesthat bind to receptors.

In some embodiments, a targeting agent is an antigen binding protein(e.g., an antibody or binding portion thereof). Antibodies can begenerated using known methods to allow for the specific targeting ofantigens or immunogens (e.g., tumor, tissue, or pathogen specificantigens) on various biological targets (e.g., pathogens, or tumorcells). Such antibodies include, but are not limited to, polyclonalantibodies; monoclonal antibodies or antigen binding fragments thereof;modified antibodies such as chimeric antibodies, reshaped antibodies,humanized antibodies, or fragments thereof (e.g., Fv, Fab′, Fab,F(ab′)₂); or biosynthetic antibodies, e.g., single chain antibodies,single domain antibodies (DAB), Fvs, or single chain Fvs (scFv). Methodsof making and using polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies are well knownin the art, e.g., in Harlow et al., Using Antibodies: A LaboratoryManual: Portable Protocol I. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (Dec. 1,1998). Methods for making modified antibodies and antibody fragments(e.g., chimeric antibodies, reshaped antibodies, humanized antibodies,or fragments thereof, e.g., Fab′, Fab, F(ab′)₂ fragments); orbiosynthetic antibodies (e.g., single chain antibodies, single domainantibodies (DABs), Fv, single chain Fv (scFv), and the like), are knownin the art and can be found, e.g., in Zola, Monoclonal Antibodies:Preparation and Use of Monoclonal Antibodies and Engineered AntibodyDerivatives, Springer Verlag (Dec. 15, 2000; 1st edition).

In some embodiments, the targeting agent is a nucleic acid (e.g., RNA orDNA). In some examples, the nucleic acid targeting agents are designedto hybridize by base pairing to a particular nucleic acid (e.g.,chromosomal DNA, mRNA, or ribosomal RNA). In other situations, thenucleic acids bind a ligand or biological target. For example, thenucleic acid can bind reverse transcriptase, Rev or Tat proteins of HIV(Tuerk et al., Gene 137:33-9 (1993)); human nerve growth factor (Binkleyet al., Nuc. Acids Res. 23:3198-205 (1995)); or vascular endothelialgrowth factor (Jellinek et al., Biochem. 83:10450-10456 (1994)). Nucleicacids that bind ligands can be identified by known methods, such as theSELEX procedure (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,475,096; 5,270,163; and5,475,096; and WO 97/38134; WO 98/33941; and WO 99/07724). The targetingagents can also be aptamers that bind to particular sequences.

The targeting agents can recognize a variety of known epitopes onpreselected biological targets (e.g., pathogens or tumor cells). In someembodiments, the targeting agent targets nanoparticles to factorsexpressed by oncogenes. These can include, but are not limited to,tyrosine kinases (membrane-associated and cytoplasmic forms), such asmembers of the Src family; serine/threonine kinases, such as Mos; growthfactor and receptors, such as platelet derived growth factor (PDDG),small GTPases (G proteins), including the ras family, cyclin-dependentprotein kinases (cdk), members of the myc family members, includingc-myc, N-myc, and L-myc, and bcl-2 family members.

Other Agents

In accordance with the present disclosure, a particle can include one ormore agents for delivery after administration/implantation. Such anagent may be or comprise small molecules, large (i.e., macro-)molecules, or any combinations thereof. Additionally or alternatively,an agent can be a formulation including various forms, such as liquids,liquid solutions, gels, hydrogels, solid particles (e.g.,microparticles, nanoparticles), or combinations thereof.

In representative, non-limiting, embodiments, an agent can be selectedfrom among amino acids, vaccines, antiviral agents, nucleic acids (e.g.,siRNA, RNAi, and microRNA agents), gene delivery vectors, interleukininhibitors, immunomodulators, neurotropic factors, neuroprotectiveagents, antineoplastic agents, chemotherapeutic agents, polysaccharides,anticoagulants, antibiotics, analgesic agents, anesthetics,antihistamines, anti-inflammatory agents, vitamins and/or anycombination thereof. In some embodiments, an agent may be selected fromsuitable proteins, peptides and fragments thereof, which can benaturally occurring, synthesized or recombinantly produced.

In some embodiments, an agent is or comprises a biologic. Examples ofbiologics including, but are not limited to, monoclonal antibodies,single chain antibodies, aptamers, enzymes, growth factors, hormones,fusion proteins, cytokines, therapeutic enzymes, recombinant vaccines,blood factors, and anticoagulants. Exemplary biologics suitable for usein accordance with the present disclosure are discussed in S. Aggarwal,Nature Biotechnology, 28:11, 2010, the contents of which areincorporated by reference herein.

In some embodiments, compositions and methods in accordance with thepresent application are particularly useful to deliver one or moretherapeutic agents.

In some embodiments, a therapeutic agent is a small molecule and/ororganic compound with pharmaceutical activity. In some embodiments, atherapeutic agent is a clinically-used drug. In some embodiments, atherapeutic agent is or comprises an anti-cancer agent, antibiotic,anti-viral agent, anesthetic, anticoagulant, inhibitor of an enzyme,steroidal agent, anti-inflammatory agent, anti-neoplastic agent,antigen, vaccine, antibody, decongestant, antihypertensive, sedative,birth control agent, progestational agent, anti-cholinergic, analgesic,anti-depressant, anti-psychotic, β-adrenergic blocking agent, diuretic,cardiovascular active agent, vasoactive agent, anti-glaucoma agent,neuroprotectant, angiogenesis inhibitor, etc.

Exemplary anticancer agents included, but are not limited to, acytokine, a chemokine, a growth factor, a photosensitizing agent, atoxin, an anti-cancer antibiotic, a chemotherapeutic compound, aradionuclide, an angiogenesis inhibitor, a signaling modulator, ananti-metabolite, an anti-cancer vaccine, an anti-cancer oligopeptide, amitosis inhibitor protein, an antimitotic oligopeptide, an anti-cancerantibody, an anti-cancer agent, antibiotic, an immunotherapeutic agent,hyperthermia or hyperthermia therapy, a bacterium, radiation therapy anda combination of such agents. In some examples, an anticancer agent iscisplatin, carboplatin, gemcitabine, irinotecan, an anti-EGFR antibody,an anti-VEGF antibody and any combinations thereof.

A therapeutic agent used in accordance with the present application canbe or comprise an agent useful in combating inflammation and/orinfection. A therapeutic agent may be an antibiotic. Exemplaryantibiotics include, but are not limited to, β-lactam antibiotics,macrolides, monobactams, rifamycins, tetracyclines, chloramphenicol,clindamycin, lincomycin, fusidic acid, novobiocin, fosfomycin, fusidatesodium, capreomycin, colistimethate, gramicidin, minocycline,doxycycline, bacitracin, erythromycin, nalidixic acid, vancomycin, andtrimethoprim. For example, β-lactam antibiotics can be ampicillin,aziocillin, aztreonam, carbenicillin, cefoperazone, ceftriaxone,cephaloridine, cephalothin, cloxacillin, moxalactam, penicillin G,piperacillin, ticarcillin and any combination thereof. Otheranti-microbial agents such as copper may also be used in accordance withthe present invention. For example, anti-viral agents, anti-protazoalagents, anti-parasitic agents, etc. may be of use. Additionally oralternatively, a therapeutic agent may be an anti-inflammatory agent.

A therapeutic agent may be a mixture of pharmaceutically active agents.For example, a local anesthetic may be delivered in combination with ananti-inflammatory agent such as a steroid. Local anesthetics may also beadministered with vasoactive agents such as epinephrine. To give butanother example, an antibiotic may be combined with an inhibitor of theenzyme commonly produced by bacteria to inactivate the antibiotic (e.g.,penicillin and clavulanic acid).

In some embodiments, a therapeutic agent may a therapeutic gene as knownin the art. In some embodiments, a therapeutic agent is a non-viralvector. Typical non-viral gene delivery vectors comprise DNA (e.g.,plasmid DNA produced in bacteria) or RNA. In certain embodiments, anon-viral vectors is used in accordance with the present invention withthe aid of a delivery vehicle. Delivery vehicles may be based aroundlipids (e.g., liposomes) which fuse with cell membranes releasing anucleic acid into the cytoplasm of the cell. Alternatively oralternatively, peptides or polymers may be used to form complexes (e.g.,in form of particles) with a nucleic acid which may condense as well asprotect the therapeutic activity as it attempts to reach a targetdestination.

Systems and Instruments

Systems of the disclosure include detectors and associated componentsfor detecting Raman spectra from cells and/or tissues. In someembodiments, such systems include an excitation source (e.g., a lightsource), optics for directing such excitation source to a sample (e.g.,cells and/or tissues), and a detector for detecting Raman spectra fromsuch sample.

The light source for producing excitation light may include one or morelasers, and optics for directing the excitation light onto and/or intothe target tissue are configured to disperse the excitation light evenlyover the wide field corresponding to the target tissue. For example,near-infrared (NIR) could be used, e.g., 785 nm diodes, 300 mW, and/or1064 nm Nd:YAG lasers.

In some embodiments, a hyperspectral wide field imaging device is usedwith CCD detector and filter. For example, monochromatic images of thewhole wide field are obtained at each of a plurality of wavelengths(e.g., a limited set of 2 to 10 wavelengths), each wavelengthcorresponding to a spectral peak characteristic of the Raman reporter.The laser may be a tunable laser source. Optics may include a tunablelaser line filter (LLF) and/or a tunable notch filter (NF), where thefilters are tandem thick volume Bragg gratings. The plurality ofmonochromatic images may be analyzed, by the detector, for graphicalidentification of the Raman reporters within the wide field. Imagesdisplaying the location of R-MR nanoparticle reporters (indicative oftumor or other abnormal tissue) may be superimposed, for example, oncorresponding video images of the wide field, allowing the surgeon theability to visualize such tissue and remove it with limited damage tosurrounding healthy tissue.

The system may allow scanning/imaging of a wide field of view of about5×5 cm, 10×10 cm, 20×20 cm. In some embodiments, the field of view isabout 25 cm², 50 cm², 75 cm², 100 cm², 150 cm², 200 cm², 300 cm², 400cm², 500 cm², or larger. Individual images of R-MR nanoparticles may beacquired within seconds, for example, or less than a second, such that areal-time or near real-time sequence of images may be viewed (e.g., 10images per second or more, e.g., 20 or more images per second).

In some embodiments, systems of the disclosure include detectors andassociated components for detecting Raman spectra from cells and/ortissues and implements for treating (e.g., ablating and/or resecting)cells and/or tissues from which Raman spectra are detected. In someembodiments, such systems include an excitation source (e.g., a lightsource), optics for directing such excitation source to a sample (e.g.,cells and/or tissues), a detector for detecting Raman spectra from suchsample, and implements for treating (e.g., ablating and/or resecting)cells and/or tissues from which Raman spectra are detected.

In some embodiments, a system of the disclosure includes a handheldinstrument of size and length that can be customized to a particularapplication. A system can include a resector/ablation mechanism (e.g., amechanical resector (e.g., rotary blade, vibrating knife, or percussingknife), an electro-cautery mechanism, a cryoablation mechanism, and/or aradiofrequency ablation mechanism. A system can optionally include avacuum suction mechanism connected to a collection bag that removesresected tissue from the site of resection. Adjacent and/or near themotorized resection mechanism within the handheld device can be locatedan excitation laser pathway and optics for measuring emitted Ramanspectra. Optionally, a rinsing mechanism can be included within thedevice to help clean the optics. The hand-held device can be connectedwith a cable (e.g., fiberoptic cable) and tubing (e.g., suction tubing)to a box located adjacent to the operating site that houses mechanics,optics, and electronics (e.g., excitation laser, Raman spectral analysisoptics, CCD chips, and optionally motors to drive the resectioninstrument, suction motor, and rinsing mechanism).

An exemplary system is illustrated schematically in FIG. 26. As shown inFIG. 26, system 2600 of the disclosure includes a hand-heldinstrument/housing 2601 having a terminal end 2612. The instrument 2601may include optics for directing an excitation light onto a targetsample 2630 (e.g., cells, or tissue). In this exemplary system,excitation light source 2602 is a Raman laser, for example, having awavelength of 785 nm. The excitation light is transmitted along cable2610 from excitation light source 2602 through device 2601 and isdirected to target tissue 2630 through terminal end 2612. In someembodiments, the excitation light passes through one or more filters2611 before reaching target 2630. The filter(s) may or may not becontained within the hand-held instrument 2601. In alternativeembodiments, the excitation light is not directed onto the tissue 2630by the hand-held instrument 2601, but instead is directed onto thetissue 2630 via optics, apart from the instrument 2601.

The system 2600 also includes a detector for detecting a signal fromtarget 2630. Such signal follows cable 2620 to signal analyzer 2603. Inthis exemplary system, signal analyzer 2603 is a Raman analyzer. Upondetermination that an appropriate signal is detected, signal analyzer2603 relays a positive signal to ablation controller 2604. Ablationcontroller 2604 is operably linked to instrument 2601 via cable 2605,which terminates in an ablation device near terminal end 2612 ofinstrument 2601. Upon receiving a positive signal from ablationcontroller 2604, the ablation device ablates cells and/or tissue at ornear target 2630. In some embodiments, ablation controller 2604 includesa mechanical ablation controller operably linked to a suction vacuummechanism near terminal end 2612 of instrument 2601 via tubing 2606.

In alternative embodiments, the system 2600 includes a motor-driven andcontrolled resection mechanism (e.g., a rotating blade) located at thetip 2612 of the handheld device 2601, such that activation of theresection mechanism is triggered upon detection of a Raman signal by theRaman Analyzer 2603.

In some embodiments, a system of the disclosure includes a handheldinstrument of size and length that can be customized depending onapplication. A system can include a laser suitable forablating/destroying tissue (e.g., a CO₂ or Nd:YAG laser). A system canoptionally include a vacuum suction mechanism connected to a collectionbag that removes destroyed tissue (and, optionally, nanoparticlesdescribed herein) within targeted tissue. Adjacent to the ablation laserpathway within the handheld device can be located an excitation laserpathway and optics for measuring emitted Raman spectra. Optionally, arinsing mechanism can be included within the device to help clean theoptics. The handheld device can be connected with a cable (e.g.,fiberoptic cable) and tubing (e.g., suction tubing) to a box locatedadjacent to the operating site that houses mechanics, optics, andelectronics (e.g., excitation laser, ablation laser, Raman spectralanalysis optics, CCD chip(s), and optionally motors to drive the suctionmotor, and rinsing mechanism).

Two exemplary systems are illustrated schematically in FIG. 27. As shownin FIG. 27, system 2700 of the disclosure includes a hand-heldinstrument 2701 having a terminal end 2714. The instrument 2701 includesa housing 2702 for directing an excitation light to a target sample2715. In this exemplary system, excitation light source 2704 is a Ramanlaser, for example, having a wavelength of 785 nm. The excitation lightis transmitted along cable 2707 from excitation light source 2704through instrument 2701 and is directed to target 2715 through terminalend 2714. In some embodiments, the excitation light passes through oneor more filters 2710 and 2712 before reaching target 2715. The filter(s)may or may not be contained within the hand-held instrument 2701. Inalternative embodiments, the excitation light is not directed onto thetissue 2715 by the hand-held instrument 2701, but instead is directedonto the tissue 2715 via optics apart from the instrument 2701.

The system 2700 also includes a detector for detecting a signal fromtarget 2715. Such signal travels through cable 2708 to signal analyzer2705. In this exemplary system, signal analyzer 2705 is a Ramananalyzer. Signal analyzer 2705 is operably linked to ablation laser2706. In this exemplary system, ablation laser 2706 is a CO₂ laser. Upondetermination that an appropriate signal is detected, signal analyzer2705 relays a positive signal to ablation laser 2706. Ablation laser2706 is operably linked to device 2701 via cable 2709, which directs theablation laser through housing 2703 to target 2715. In some embodiments,ablation laser passes through filters 2711 and 2713 before reachingtarget 2715.

FIG. 27 also illustrates exemplary system 2750, which differs fromsystem 2700 in the configuration of device 2751. As shown in FIG. 27,device 2751 includes housing 2752 for directing excitation light from anexcitation light source and for directing Raman signals to a signalanalyzer as described for system 2700. Device 2751 also includes housing2753 for directing ablation laser to target 2758, as described forsystem 2700. Device 2751 includes filter 2754 and deflector 2756, whichdirects ablation laser along or near the same pathway used by theexcitation light to reach target 2758.

The instruments 2601, 2701, 2750 described above, instead of beinghand-held, may be endoscopic instruments designed for insertion into apatient, for example, into the gastrointestinal tract, the respiratorytract, the ear, the urinary tract, the female reproductive system, theabdominal or pelvic cavity, the interior of a joint (arthroscopy),organs of the chest, or the amnion.

In some embodiments, systems 2600 and 2700 described above additionallyinclude one or more additional modalities for detecting a Ramannanoparticle, and/or for otherwise detecting tissue to be ablated orresected. For example, the system further includes MRI, NMR, PET, SPECT,CT, X-ray, ultrasound, photoacoustic, and/or fluorescent detectionmodalities.

Systems of the disclosure described herein may have components of smallsize (e.g., micromechanical components), such that the systems may beused in microsurgical procedures.

Systems of the disclosure described herein may be robot-assisted orrobot-guided. For example, the instrument 2601, 2701, 2750 may be partof a robotic system that positions and/or moves the instrumentautomatically or semi-automatically. Other components of known roboticsurgical systems may be used in conjunction with the systems of thisdisclosure.

In some embodiments, a system described herein further includes a Ramanraster scanning device. For example, a Raman raster scanning device canbe used to scan (e.g., systematically scan) a field having a particulardimension (e.g., a surface area of target tissue). FIG. 28 illustratesan exemplary system for using a Raman scanning device, which can be usedin any of the embodiments described herein. As shown in FIG. 28, acontroller is operably linked to a motor, which manipulates the positionof a stage (e.g., an X-Y stage, an X—Y-Z stage, or an XYZ/rotationstage).

Excitation Sources

Generally, excitation light for producing Raman photon scattering from atarget cell and/or tissue is provided using a laser. Particularwavelengths useful in producing Raman scattering can be determined bythe target to be excited. In some embodiments, excitation light is inthe visible to near infrared range (e.g., about 400 nm to about 1400nm). For example, in some embodiments, excitation light of 244 nm, 325nm, 442 nm, 488 nm, 514 nm, 532 nm, 633 nm, 785 nm, or 830 nm can beused.

Selection of a particular wavelength for excitation light can be basedon the particular substance to be excited. In some embodiments, a Ramannanoparticle, e.g., a SERS nanoparticle, is excited to produce Ramanscattered photons. The composition of a particular Raman nanoparticlecan be used to select an appropriate wavelength. In some embodiments, aSERS nanoparticle described in Kircher et al., Nature Med. 18:829-834(2012); Yigit et al., Am. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 2:232-241 (2012);Zhang et al., Small. 7:3261-9 (2011); or Zhang et al., Curr. Pharm.Biotechnol. 11:654-661 (2010) is used, and excitation light of 785 nm isused.

In some embodiment, an intrinsic non-enhanced or intrinsic enhanced(SERS) Raman spectrum of a tissue to be destroyed is excited. In suchembodiments, selection of a particular wavelength of excitation lightcan be determined by particular properties of the diseased tissue.

Detectors

Raman scattered photons from an illuminated sample can be collected andtransmitted to one or more detectors. The detector(s) may be or mayinclude a charge-coupled device (CCD) image sensor, for example, atime-gated intensified CCD camera (e.g., an ICCD camera). Alternativelyor additional, the detector(s) may include an active pixel sensor(CMOS), an electron-multiplying CCD (EMCCD), frame transfer CCD, or thelike.

In some embodiments, electromagnetic radiation used to obtain Ramanimages is transmitted to a detector in a “mappable” or “addressable”fashion, such that radiation (e.g., light) transmitted from differentassessed regions of tissue can be differentiated by the detector. Lightdetected by a detector can be light transmitted, reflected, emitted, orscattered by the tissue through air interposed between the tissuesurface and the detector. Alternatively, light can be transmitted by wayof one or more optical fibers to the detector, for example. In someembodiments, one or more additional optical elements can be interposedbetween a target cell and/or tissue and detector(s). If optical elementsare used to facilitate transmission from the surface to the detectors,other optical element(s) can be optically coupled with the fibers oneither end or in the middle of such fibers. Examples of suitable opticalelements include one or more lenses, beam splitters, diffractiongratings, polarization filters, bandpass filters, or other opticalelements selected for transmitting or modifying light to be assessed bydetectors. One or more appropriate optical elements may be coupled witha detector.

For example, a suitable filter can be a cut-off filter, a Fabry Perotangle tuned filter, an acousto-optic tunable filter, a liquid crystaltunable filter, a Lyot filter, an Evans split element liquid crystaltunable filter, a Solc liquid crystal tunable filter, or a liquidcrystal Fabry Perot tunable filter. Suitable interferometers include apolarization-independent imaging interferometer, a Michelsoninterferometer, a Sagnac interferometer, a Twynam-Green interferometer,a Mach-Zehnder interferometer, and a tunable Fabry Perot interferometer.

Cells/Tissues

The methods, systems, and devices described herein can be used toidentify and/or distinctly visualize a variety of cells and/or tissues,e.g., diseased cells and/or tissues. In some embodiments, methodsdescribed herein identify hyperproliferative, hyperplastic, metaplastic,dysplastic, and pre-neoplastic tissues.

By “hyperproliferative tissue” is meant a neoplastic cell growth orproliferation, whether malignant or benign, including all transformedcells and tissues and all cancerous cells and tissues.Hyperproliferative tissues include, but are not limited to, precancerouslesions, abnormal cell growths, benign tumors, malignant tumors, andcancer. Additional nonlimiting examples of hyperproliferative tissuesinclude neoplasms, whether benign or malignant, located in the brain,prostate, colon, abdomen, bone, breast, digestive system, liver,pancreas, peritoneum, endocrine glands (adrenal, parathyroid, pituitary,testicles, ovary, thymus, thyroid), eye, head and neck, nervous (centraland peripheral), lymphatic system, pelvic, skin, soft tissue, spleen,thoracic, or urogenital tract.

As used herein, the term “tumor” or “tumor tissue” refers to an abnormalmass of tissue that results from excessive cell division. A tumor ortumor tissue comprises “tumor cells”, which are neoplastic cells withabnormal growth properties and no useful bodily function. Tumors, tumortissue, and tumor cells may be benign or malignant. A tumor or tumortissue can also comprise “tumor-associated non-tumor cells”, such asvascular cells that form blood vessels to supply the tumor or tumortissue. Non-tumor cells can be induced to replicate and develop by tumorcells, for example, induced to undergo angiogenesis within orsurrounding a tumor or tumor tissue.

As used herein, the term “malignancy” refers to a non-benign tumor or acancer. As used herein, the term “cancer” means a type ofhyperproliferative disease that includes a malignancy characterized byderegulated or uncontrolled cell growth. Examples of cancer include, butare not limited to, carcinoma, lymphoma, blastoma, sarcoma, and leukemiaor lymphoid malignancies. More particular examples of such cancers arenoted below and include squamous cell cancer (e.g., epithelial squamouscell cancer), lung cancer (including small-cell lung cancer, non-smallcell lung cancer, adenocarcinoma of the lung and squamous carcinoma ofthe lung), cancer of the peritoneum, hepatocellular cancer, gastric orstomach cancer including gastrointestinal cancer, pancreatic cancer,glioblastoma, cervical cancer, ovarian cancer, liver cancer, bladdercancer, hepatoma, breast cancer, colon cancer, rectal cancer, colorectalcancer, endometrial cancer, uterine carcinoma, salivary gland carcinoma,kidney or renal cancer, prostate cancer, vulval cancer, thyroid cancer,hepatic carcinoma, anal carcinoma, penile carcinoma, as well as head andneck cancer. The term “cancer” includes primary malignant cells ortumors (e.g., those whose cells have not migrated to sites in thesubject's body other than the site of the original malignancy or tumor)and secondary malignant cells or tumors (e.g., those arising frommetastasis, the migration of malignant cells or tumor cells to secondarysites that are different from the site of the original tumor).

In addition to tumors and/or malignant tissue, the apparatus and methodsdescribed herein can also be used to identify premalignant tissue. Theapparatus and methods described herein can further be used to identifyhyperplastic tissue. Hyperplasia is a form of controlled cellproliferation, involving an increase in cell number in a tissue ororgan, without significant alteration in structure or function.Hyperplastic disorders include, but are not limited to, angiofollicularmediastinal lymph node hyperplasia, angiolymphoid hyperplasia witheosinophilia, atypical melanocytic hyperplasia, basal cell hyperplasia,benign giant lymph node hyperplasia, cementum hyperplasia, congenitaladrenal hyperplasia, congenital sebaceous hyperplasia, cystichyperplasia, cystic hyperplasia of the breast, denture hyperplasia,ductal hyperplasia, endometrial hyperplasia, fibromuscular hyperplasia,focal epithelial hyperplasia, gingival hyperplasia, inflammatory fibroushyperplasia, inflammatory papillary hyperplasia, intravascular papillaryendothelial hyperplasia, nodular hyperplasia of prostate, nodularregenerative hyperplasia, pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia, senilesebaceous hyperplasia, and verrucous hyperplasia.

The apparatus and methods described herein can also be used to identifymetaplastic tissue. Metaplasia is a form of controlled cell growth inwhich one type of adult or fully differentiated cell substitutes foranother type of adult cell. Metaplastic disorders include, but are notlimited to, agnogenic myeloid metaplasia, apocrine metaplasia, atypicalmetaplasia, autoparenchymatous metaplasia, connective tissue metaplasia,epithelial metaplasia, intestinal metaplasia, metaplastic anemia,metaplastic ossification, metaplastic polyps, myeloid metaplasia,primary myeloid metaplasia, secondary myeloid metaplasia, squamousmetaplasia, squamous metaplasia of amnion, and symptomatic myeloidmetaplasia.

The apparatus and methods described herein can also be used to identifydysplastic tissue. Dysplasia can be a forerunner of cancer and is foundmainly in the epithelia. Dysplasia is a disorderly form ofnon-neoplastic cell growth, involving a loss in individual celluniformity and in the architectural orientation of cells. Dysplasticcells can have abnormally large, deeply stained nuclei, and exhibitpleomorphism. Dysplasia can occur, e.g., in areas of chronic irritationor inflammation. Dysplastic disorders include, but are not limited to,anhidrotic ectodermal dysplasia, anterofacial dysplasia, asphyxiatingthoracic dysplasia, atriodigital dysplasia, bronchopulmonary dysplasia,cerebral dysplasia, cervical dysplasia, chondroectodermal dysplasia,cleidocranial dysplasia, congenital ectodermal dysplasia,craniodiaphysial dysplasia, craniocarpotarsal dysplasia,craniometaphysial dysplasia, dentin dysplasia, diaphysial dysplasia,ectodermal dysplasia, enamel dysplasia, encephalo-ophthalmic dysplasia,dysplasia epiphysialis hemimelia, dysplasia epiphysialis multiplex,dysplasia epiphysialis punctata, epithelial dysplasia,faciodigitogenital dysplasia, familial fibrous dysplasia of the jaws,familial white folded dysplasia, fibromuscular dysplasia, fibrousdysplasia of bone, florid osseous dysplasia, hereditary renal-retinaldysplasia, hidrotic ectodermal dysplasia, hypohidrotic ectodermaldysplasia, lymphopenic thymic dysplasia, mammary dysplasia,mandibulofacial dysplasia, metaphysial dysplasia, Mondini dysplasia,monostotic fibrous dysplasia, mucoepithelial dysplasia, multipleepiphysial dysplasia, oculoauriculovertebral dysplasia,oculodentodigital dysplasia, oculovertebral dysplasia, odontogenicdysplasia, ophthalmomandibulomelic dysplasia, periapical cementaldysplasia, polyostotic fibrous dysplasia, pseudoachondroplasticspondyloepiphysial dysplasia, retinal dysplasia, septo-optic dysplasia,spondyloepiphysial dysplasia, and ventriculoradial dysplasia.

Additional pre-neoplastic tissue that can be identified by the apparatusand methods described herein include, but are not limited to, benigndysproliferative disorders (e.g., benign tumors, fibrocystic conditions,tissue hypertrophy, intestinal polyps, colon polyps, and esophagealdysplasia), leukoplakia, keratoses, Bowen's disease, Farmer's Skin,solar cheilitis, and solar keratosis.

The apparatus, methods, and systems described herein can also be used toidentify infected cells and/or tissues. In some embodiments, apparatusand methods described herein identify tissues infected with a virus,bacterium, fungus, protozoan, and/or helminth.

In some embodiments, infected tissue is infected with one or more of animmunodeficiency virus (e.g., a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV),e.g., HIV-1, HIV-2), a hepatitis virus (e.g., hepatitis B virus (HBV),hepatitis C virus (HCV), hepatitis A virus, non-A and non-B hepatitisvirus), a herpes virus (e.g., herpes simplex virus type I (HSV-1),HSV-2, Varicella-zoster virus, Epstein Barr virus, humancytomegalovirus, human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6), HHV-7, HHV-8), a poxvirus(e.g., variola, vaccinia, monkeypox, Molluscum contagiosum virus), aninfluenza virus, a human papilloma virus, adenovirus, rhinovirus,coronavirus, respiratory syncytial virus, rabies virus, coxsackie virus,human T-cell leukemia virus (types I, II and III), parainfluenza virus,paramyxovirus, poliovirus, rotavirus, rhinovirus, rubella virus, measlesvirus, mumps virus, adenovirus, yellow fever virus, Norwalk virus, WestNile virus, a Dengue virus, Severe Acute Respiratory SyndromeCoronavirus (SARS-CoV), bunyavirus, Ebola virus, Marburg virus, Easternequine encephalitis virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus,Japanese encephalitis virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus, Junin virus,Lassa virus, and Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus.

In some embodiments, infected tissue is infected with one or morebacteria from the following genera and species: Chlamydia (e.g.,Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia psittaci, Chlamydia trachomatis),Legionella (e.g., Legionella pneumophila), Listeria (e.g., Listeriamonocytogenes), Rickettsia (e.g., R. australis, R. rickettsii, R. akari,R. conorii, R. sibirica, R. japonica, R. africae, R. typhi, R.prowazekii), Actinobacter (e.g., Actinobacter baumannii), Bordetella(e.g., Bordetella pertussis), Bacillus (e.g., Bacillus anthracis,Bacillus cereus), Bacteroides (e.g., Bacteroides fragilis), Bartonella(e.g., Bartonella henselae), Borrelia (e.g., Borrelia burgdorferi),Brucella (e.g., Brucella abortus, Brucella canis, Brucella melitensis,Brucella suis), Campylobacter (e.g., Campylobacter jejuni), Clostridium(e.g., Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium difficile, Clostridiumperfringens, Clostridium tetani), Corynebacterium (e.g., Corynebacteriumdiphtheriae, Corynebacterium amycolatum), Enterococcus (e.g.,Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium), Escherichia (e.g.,Escherichia coli), Francisella (e.g., Francisella tularensis),Haemophilus (e.g., Haemophilus influenzae), Helicobacter (e.g.,Helicobacter pylori), Klebsiella (e.g., Klebsiella pneumoniae),Leptospira (e.g., Leptospira interrogans), Mycobacteria (e.g.,Mycobacterium leprae, Mycobacterium tuberculosis), Mycoplasma (e.g.,Mycoplasma pneumoniae), Neisseria (e.g., Neisseria gonorrhoeae,Neisseria meningitidis), Pseudomonas (e.g., Pseudomonas aeruginosa),Salmonella (e.g., Salmonella typhi, Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonellaenterica), Shigella (e.g., Shigella dysenteriae, Shigella sonnei),Staphylococcus (e.g., Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis,Staphylococcus saprophyticus), Streptococcus (e.g., Streptococcusagalactiae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes), Treponoma(e.g., Treponoma pallidum), Vibrio (e.g., Vibrio cholerae, Vibriovulnificus), and Yersinia (e.g., Yersinia pestis).

In some embodiments, infected tissue is infected with one or moreprotozoa, for example, one or more of Cryptosporidium parvum, Entamoeba(e.g., Entamoeba histolytica), Giardia (e.g., Giardia lambila),Leishmania (e.g., Leishmania donovani), Plasmodium spp. (e.g.,Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale, Plasmodiummalariae), Toxoplasma (e.g., Toxoplasma gondii), Trichomonas (e.g.,Trichomonas vaginalis), and Trypanosoma (e.g., Trypanosoma brucei,Trypanosoma cruzi).

In some embodiments, infected tissue is infected with one or more fungalpathogens such as Aspergillus, Candida (e.g., Candida albicans),Coccidiodes (e.g., Coccidiodes immitis), Cryptococcus (e.g.,Cryptococcus neoformans), Histoplasma (e.g., Histoplasma capsulatum),and Pneumocystis (e.g., Pneumocystis carinii).

In some embodiments, infected tissue is infected with one or morehelminths, such as Ascaris lumbricoides, Ancylostoma, Clonorchissinensis, Dracuncula medinensis, Enterobius vermicularis, Filaria,Onchocerca volvulus, Loa boa, Schistosoma, Strongyloides, Trichuristrichura, and Trichinella spiralis.

Computer/Software

Embodiments may include a computer which executes software that controlsthe operation of one or more instruments/devices, and/or that processesdata obtained by the system. The software may include one or moremodules recorded on machine-readable media such as magnetic disks,magnetic tape, CD-ROM, and semiconductor memory, for example. Themachine-readable medium may be resident within the computer or can beconnected to the computer by a communication link (e.g., access viainternet link). However, in alternative embodiments, one can substitutecomputer instructions in the form of hardwired logic for software, orone can substitute firmware (i.e., computer instructions recorded ondevices such as PROMs, EPROMS, EEPROMs, or the like) for software. Theterm machine-readable instructions as used herein is intended toencompass software, hardwired logic, firmware, object code and the like.

The computer can be, for example, a general purpose computer. Thecomputer can be, for example, an embedded computer, a personal computersuch as a laptop or desktop computer, or another type of computer, thatis capable of running the software, issuing suitable control commands,and/or recording information in real-time. The computer may include adisplay for reporting information to an operator of the system/device(e.g., displaying a view field to a surgeon during an operation), akeyboard and/or other I/O device such as a mouse for enabling theoperator to enter information and commands, and/or a printer forproviding a print-out. In certain embodiments, some commands entered atthe keyboard enable a user to perform certain data processing tasks.

Auxiliary Imaging Systems

The Raman-based systems, methods, and devices described herein that areutilized in a surgical or non-surgical procedure may be used incombination with other imaging systems implemented before, during, orafter the procedure. For example, the Raman-based systems, methods, anddevices may be used in combination with video, microscope, x-ray,Computed Tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasound(US), thermography, fluorescence imaging, Diffuse Optical Tomography(DOT), Positron Emission Tomography (PET), PET/CT, Single PhotonEmission Computed Tomography (SPECT), and/or SPECT/CT systems.

In some embodiments, a target tissue (e.g., diseased tissue) is imagedusing an auxiliary imaging system, and the image can be used to guide aRaman ablation system described herein to the target tissue. In someembodiments, an auxiliary imaging system includes hardware and/orsoftware for co-registering the image with detected Raman signals. Forexample, a video camera can be used in conjunction with the Raman systemdescribed herein, such that the video camera provides an image thatserves to identify locations at which the ablation or resection deviceis inoperative (regardless of the presence of a Raman reporter at suchlocation). Furthermore, other detection modalities, such as MRI, NMR,PET, SPECT, CT, X-ray, ultrasound, photoacoustic detection, and/orfluorescent detection can be used in conjunction with the Raman systemsdescribed herein to identify tissue to be resected/ablated.

EQUIVALENTS

It is to be understood that while the invention has been described inconjunction with the detailed description thereof, the foregoingdescription is intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of theinvention, which is defined by the scope of the appended claims. Otheraspects, advantages, and modifications are within the scope of thefollowing claims.

We claim:
 1. A wide field Raman imaging apparatus comprising: at leastone light source for producing excitation light; optics for directingthe excitation light onto and/or into a target tissue; a detector fordetecting Raman scattered photons emanating from the target tissuefollowing illumination by the excitation light, the Raman scatteredphotons indicative of the presence of a Raman reporter in and/or uponthe target tissue; and a processor configured to process datacorresponding to the Raman scattered photons detected from the targettissue and to produce an image depicting a wide field corresponding tothe target tissue, the image visually indicating position and/orintensity of the Raman reporter within the wide field.
 2. The apparatusof claim 1, wherein the at least one light source, the detector, and theprocessor are configured to produce a substantially real-time series ofimages visually indicating position and/or intensity of the Ramanreporter within the wide field.
 3. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein theprocessor is configured to produce each image of the real-time series ofimages by obtaining one or more monochromatic images within a givenshort interval of time (e.g., 500 milliseconds or less, e.g., 50milliseconds or less), each monochromatic image obtained at a wavelengthcorresponding to a spectral peak characteristic of the Raman reporter,and to use the one or more monochromatic images to produce the image inthe real-time series indicating the position and/or intensity of theRaman reporter within the wide field during the given short interval oftime.
 4. The apparatus of any one of the preceding claims, wherein thewide field is at least 100 cm² in area (e.g., at least 300, 500, 1000,or 1200 cm²).
 5. The apparatus of any one of the preceding claims,wherein the at least one light source comprises a tunable laser source.6. The apparatus of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the opticscomprise a tunable laser line filter (LLF) and/or a tunable notch filter(NF) (e.g., said filter(s) comprising tandem thick volume Bragggratings).
 7. The apparatus of any one of the preceding claims, whereinthe detector is a hyperspectral imager with a spatial resolution nogreater than about 10 mm² (e.g., from 0.1 mm² to 3 mm², e.g., about 1mm²).
 8. The apparatus of any one of the preceding claims, wherein thedetector comprises an optical pathway configured to allow x-y imaging ofthe Raman reporter within the wide field regardless of depth (z) of theRaman reporter in relation to the detector.
 9. The apparatus of any oneof the preceding claims, further comprising a visual display for viewingthe image.
 10. The apparatus of any one of the preceding claims, whereinthe processor is configured to produce a substantially real-time seriesof images and transmit the images for display on a personal imagedisplay (e.g., worn by the surgeon), such that the series of images canbe displayed on, in, or through a transparent display that superimposesthe displayed series of images over a corresponding view of the widefield.
 11. The apparatus of claim 10, wherein the processor isconfigured to track the position of the personal image display andcompensate the series of images for movement of the display (e.g.,movement of the wearer of the display), accordingly (e.g., by trackingthe location of markers affixed on or near the patient as they appearwithin a field of view of the personal image display).
 12. The apparatusof any one of the preceding claims, further comprising a visual display,wherein the visual display is an adjustable tablet-shaped screenpositionable in relation to the target tissue of a patient in anoperating bed, wherein the optics for directing the excitation lightonto and/or into the target tissue are positioned on the side of thetablet-shaped screen facing the operating bed, and the image isdisplayed on the side of the tablet-shaped screen facing away from theoperating bed so as to be viewable by a surgeon.
 13. The apparatus ofany one of the preceding claims, wherein the light source for producingexcitation light comprises one or more lasers, and wherein the opticsfor directing the excitation light onto and/or into the target tissueare configured to disperse the excitation light evenly over the widefield corresponding to the target tissue.
 14. A method for performingwide field Raman imaging of target tissue of a patient during a surgicalprocedure, the method comprising: administering a first Raman reporterto the patient (e.g., intravenously, topically, intraarterially,intratumorally, intranodally, via lymphatic vessels, etc.); illuminatingthe target tissue with excitation light; detecting Raman scatteredphotons emanating from the target tissue following illumination by theexcitation light, the Raman scattered photons indicative of the presenceof the first Raman reporter in and/or upon the target tissue; obtaining,by the processor of a computing device, an image depicting a wide fieldcorresponding to the target tissue, the image visually indicatingposition and/or intensity of the first Raman reporter within the widefield; and displaying the image.
 15. The method of claim 14, wherein thefirst Raman reporter accumulates within and/or upon cancerous, diseased,and/or otherwise abnormal portions of the target tissue prior to theilluminating and detecting step.
 16. The method of claim 14 or 15,comprising obtaining, by the processor of the computing device, asubstantially real-time series of images visually indicating positionand/or intensity of the first Raman reporter within the wide field anddisplaying the series of images in real-time.
 17. The method of claim16, comprising obtaining, for each image of the real-time series ofimages, by the processor of the computing device, one or moremonochromatic images within a given short interval of time (e.g., 500milliseconds or less, e.g., 50 milliseconds or less), each monochromaticimage obtained at a wavelength corresponding to a spectral peakcharacteristic of the Raman reporter, and using the one or moremonochromatic images to produce the image in the real-time seriesindicating the position and/or intensity of the Raman reporter withinthe wide field during the given short interval of time.
 18. The methodof claim 16 or 17, comprising displaying the real-time series of imagesat a frame rate at least 10 frames per second (e.g., 20 to 25 frames persecond).
 19. The method of any one of claims 14 to 18, wherein the firstRaman reporter comprises Raman-MRI (R-MR) nanoparticles.
 20. The methodof any one of claims 14 to 18, wherein the first Raman reportercomprises SERRS nanoparticles.
 21. The method of any one of claims 14 to20, comprising administering a second Raman reporter to the patient withdifferent Raman signature than the first Raman reporter, wherein thedetected Raman scattered photons are indicative of the presence of thefirst Raman reporter and the second Raman reporter in and/or upon thetarget tissue, and wherein the image visually indicates position and/orintensity of the first Raman reporter and the second Raman reporterwithin the wide field in a manner such that the first Raman reporter isdistinguishable from the second Raman reporter.
 22. The method of anyone of claims 14 to 21, wherein the wide field is at least 100 cm² inarea (e.g., at least 300, 500, 1000, or 1200 cm²).
 23. The method of anyone of claims 14 to 22, comprising displaying the image on a visualdisplay, wherein the visual display is an adjustable tablet-shapedscreen positionable in relation to the target tissue of a patient in anoperating bed, wherein the image is displayed on the side of thetablet-shaped screen facing away from the operating bed such that it isviewable by a surgeon during a surgical procedure.
 24. The method of anyone of claims 14 to 23, comprising producing, by the processor of thecomputing device, a substantially real-time series of images anddisplaying the images on a personal image display (e.g., worn by asurgeon operating on the patient), such that the series of images aredisplayed on, in, or through a transparent display that superimposes thedisplayed series of images over a corresponding view of the wide field.25. The method of claim 24, comprising tracking, by the processor of thecomputing device, the position of the personal image display, andcompensating the series of images for movement of the display (e.g.,movement of the wearer of the display), accordingly (e.g., by trackingthe location of markers affixed on or near the patient as they appearwithin the field of view of the personal image display).
 26. A systemcomprising: an excitation light source for directing excitation lightonto or into a target tissue; an instrument (e.g., hand-held instrument)operably linked to the excitation light source, the instrumentcomprising: optics for directing the excitation light onto or into thetarget tissue; a detector for detecting Raman scattered photonsemanating from the target tissue, said Raman scattered photons resultingfrom illumination with the excitation light (e.g., detecting a Ramansignal); and a resector/ablator mechanism; a processor (e.g., a Ramanspectrometer and associated computer processor and/or software)configured to process data corresponding to the Raman scattered photonsdetected from the target tissue (e.g., the Raman signal); and aresector/ablator controller operably linked to the processor andoperably linked to the resector/ablator mechanism.
 27. The system ofclaim 26, wherein the excitation light source is a laser.
 28. The systemof claim 26 or 27, wherein the excitation light has a wavelength ofabout 500 nm to about 10 μm.
 29. The system of any one of the precedingclaims, wherein the instrument is an endoscopic instrument.
 30. Thesystem of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the instrumentcomprises optics for imaging.
 31. The system of any one of the precedingclaims, wherein the resector/ablator mechanism comprises a laser. 32.The system of claim 31, wherein the laser of the resector/ablatormechanism is a CO₂ laser.
 33. The system of any one of the precedingclaims, wherein the resector/ablator mechanism is a mechanical resector,an electro-cautery mechanism, a cryoablation mechanism, and/or aradiofrequency ablation mechanism.
 34. The system of any one of thepreceding claims, wherein the resector/ablator controller is configuredto activate the resector/ablator mechanism to resect, ablate, and/ordestroy tissue at a given location only if Raman scattered photonsdetected from the given location indicate the presence of a Ramanreporter (e.g., SERS nanoparticles, SERRS nanoparticles, or intrinsicspecies).
 35. The system of any one of the preceding claims, furthercomprising a suction vacuum operably linked to the instrument.
 36. Amethod of resecting, ablating, and/or destroying diseased tissue, themethod comprising: positioning an instrument in relation to a firstlocation (e.g., (x,y,z) or (x,y) location) of a target tissue of asubject (e.g., human or animal), the instrument comprising: optics fordirecting excitation light onto or into the target tissue at a givenlocation; a detector for detecting Raman scattered photons emanatingfrom the target tissue (e.g., detecting a Raman signal) at the givenlocation; and a resector/ablator mechanism; detecting the Ramanscattered photons emanating from the first location of the target tissue(e.g., detecting the Raman signal); analyzing the detected Ramanscattered photons emanating from the first location (e.g., analyzing theRaman signal) to determine whether the detected photons are indicativeof the presence of a Raman reporter (e.g., SERS nanoparticles, SERRSnanoparticles, or intrinsic species) at the first location; andactivating the resector/ablator mechanism (e.g., via a resector/ablatorcontroller) to resect the target tissue at the first location only ifthe analyzed photons from the first location are determined to beindicative of the presence of the Raman reporter at the first location.37. The method of claim 36, further comprising: deactivating theresector/ablator mechanism prior to repositioning of the instrument inrelation to a second location of the target tissue (e.g., wherein thesecond location of the target tissue is adjacent to the first location);detecting the Raman scattered photons emanating from the second locationof the target tissue; analyzing the detected Raman scattered photonsemanating from the second location to determine whether the detectedphotons are indicative of the presence of a Raman reporter (e.g., SERSnanoparticles, SERRS nanoparticles, or intrinsic species) at the secondlocation; and activating the resector/ablator mechanism to resect,ablate, and/or destroy the target tissue at the second location only ifthe analyzed photons from the second location are determined to beindicative of the presence of the Raman reporter at the second location.38. The method of claim 36 or 37, further comprising administeringnanoparticles (e.g., SERS nanoparticles) to the subject prior toimplementation of the instrument (e.g., allowing accumulation of thenanoparticles in regions associated with disease).
 39. The method of anyone of claims 36-38, further comprising scanning the subject prior toimplementation of the instrument to confirm the absence of nanoparticlesfrom healthy (e.g., normal, non-cancerous) tissue.
 40. The method of anyone of claims 36-39, wherein the instrument is operably linked to anexcitation light source.
 41. The method of claim 40, wherein theexcitation light source is a laser.
 42. The method of any one of claims36-41, wherein the excitation light has a wavelength of about 500 nm toabout 10 μm.
 43. The method of any one of claims 36-42, wherein theinstrument is an endoscopic device.
 44. The method of any one of claims36-43, wherein the instrument comprises optics for imaging.
 45. Themethod of any one of claims 36-44, wherein the resector/ablatormechanism comprises a laser.
 46. The method of claim 45, wherein thelaser of the resector/ablator mechanism is a CO₂ laser.
 47. The methodof any one of claims 36-46, wherein the resector/ablator mechanism is amechanical resector, an electro-cautery mechanism, a cryoablationmechanism, and/or a radiofrequency ablation mechanism.
 48. The method ofany one of claims 36-47, wherein the analyzing step comprises using acomputer processor (e.g., a Raman spectrometer and associated computerprocessor and/or software) to process data corresponding to the detectedRaman scattered photons.
 49. The method of any one of claims 36-48,further comprising removing resected tissue.
 50. The method of any oneof claims 36-49, wherein the method is an in vivo method.